Foundations of Practice Flashcards
Advanced practice nursing: Discuss ethical principals in practice (Nursing Code of Ethics).
The American Nurses Association developed the Nursing Code of Ethics. There are nine provisions, which are listed below:
- The nurse treats all individuals with respect and consideration, regardless of social circumstances or health condition.
- The nurse’s primary commitment is to the individual regardless of conflicts that may arise.
- The nurse promotes and advocates for the individual’s health, safety, and rights, maintaining privacy and confidentiality and protecting him or her from questionable practices or care.
- The nurse is r_esponsible for his or her own care practices_ and determines appropriate delegation of care.
- The nurse must retain respect for self and his or her own integrity and competence.
- The nurse participates in ensuring that the health care environment is conducive to providing good health care that is consistent with professional and ethical values.
- The nurse participates in education and knowledge development to advance the profession.
- The nurse collaborates with others to promote efforts to meet health needs.
- The nursing profession articulates values and promotes and maintains the integrity of the profession
Compare electronic medical records and electronic helath records.
Although many in healthcare use the terms electronic medical record (EMR) and electronic health record (HER) interchangeably, there are major distinctions between the two. The electronic medical record is created by a hospital or other health care delivery organization (CDO). The CDO owns the information in the EMR. The EMR consists of clinical documentation, orders, medications, treatments, and other clinical decision support, and is a legal record. The EHR includes information from EMRs, likely from multiple health care delivery organizations. The EHR relies on the information from the EMR to complete it. The EHR is owned by the patient and stakeholders, which could include the government, insurance companies, and healthcare providers among others. Important to the EMR is using controlled medical vocabulary so that information will be comparable among providers and other interested stakeholders. Currently in the United States the use of EHRs is limited, mostly due to many healthcare delivery organizations not having an established EMR using decided predetermined standards. There may soon be an increase in the number of organizations using EMRs with standardized language conducive to EHRs, as organizations now receive financial incentives to install EMR and EHR systems from healthcare reform.
Define the steps needed for workgroup formation.
A workgroup is a small number of people working together toward a common goal. An advantage of working in groups is that the environment allows for increased insight and creativity. A disadvantage is that workgroups sometimes fail because members of the group allow personal conflicts (in terms of personality and work styles) to interfere with the group’s goal. A popular concept identifies four stages in group development:
- Forming: This is where a group is formed and the members begin to get to know one another. Typically, individuals are quiet and polite to one another.
- Storming: This is the stage where conflicts normally arise. Effective communications must be occurring.
- Norming: Typically, conflicting factions make peace and come together. Less communication is necessary.
- Performing: This is the stage in which the group begins to really work well. Communication is free flowing.
Describe some of the roles that informatics nurse plays.
The following are some of the roles that the informatics nurse must play:
- Developing informatics theories: Assemble what sort of information should be captured on the system and how the data should be analyzed.
- Analyzing the information needs of the organization: Sort through the large amounts of data collected to determine the best information for the organization.
- Helping the organization choose computer systems: Assist in the system requirements, both for now and in the near future.
- Customizing purchased computer systems: Work with IT to customize the system so that it will be the most useful.
- Designing computer information systems: Assist IT in the overall design of the system.
- Testing new or upgraded computer systems: Conduct robust tests of the system when changes or upgrades are performed.
- Teaching other people to use the computer system: Set up training and education programs to encourage the most effective use of the system.
Describe the attributes that help to assure accuracy of information.
The following information attributes are important in assuring accuracy:
- Objective reporting - Information should be completely free from bias and reported accurately.
- Comprehensive - All the necessary information is available to complete reports and requests.
- Appropriateness - All users are able to access the information necessary to do their jobs.
- Unambiguous - The data is clearly defined in order to reduce errors.
- Reliability - When identical information is keyed in by different people, it should always be uniform in the system.
- Up to Date - The most recent information should be listed first.
- Convenience - It should not be difficult for users to locate the information they need.
Describe the differences between clinical nurses and those nurses who specialize in informatics.
The focus of a traditional clinical nurse revolves around taking care of patients. Their use of computerized systems is limited to the user level (i.e., enough knowledge to operate the equipment and enter data). Their concentration is on the accuracy of the information that they are interpreting or giving to other caregivers. They are trained to handle malfunctions and are used as a feedback source for the informatics developers. Their opinion of the computerized systems is key as to whether or not the system is successful.
Nurses who specialize in informatics focus on the information systems. They worry about the security and stability of the systems installed at their facility. They are also very adept at troubleshooting problems (especially at the user level). They make sure the systems are as user friendly as possible and, more importantly, reduce the number of tasks the traditional clinical nurse has to perform in their routine day. Efficiency arid enhanced productivity are the key goals of the informatics nurse.
Describe the essential elements in the practice of nursing informatics.
The essential elements within the practice of nursing informatics include traditional nursing aspects such as:
- Focus on the patient and their well-being.
- Healthcare in general. Keeping up to date on the latest state of the art in terms of nursing.
- Working environment. This includes how things are laid out (to avoid errors and make things as efficient as possible).
- Working with others. How to interact effectively with other healthcare practitioners and coworkers.
In terms of informatics, the related skills include:
- Knowledge of data structures (including metastructures)
- Knowledge of computer networking
- Knowledge of computer hardware
- Information system training skills
Formal education includes:
- A degree in nursing (Bachelor of Science)
- A minor (or second major) in a computer science program focused on computer systems in the healthcare industry
Describe the factors necessary for information quality.
Quality information is defined by the following factors:
- Timeliness: The necessary data is available (and retrievable) as needed.
- Precision: System dictionaries shall describe uniform wording and clear definitions.
- Accuracy: The data should be as error-free as possible.
- Measurability: The information should be quantifiable so that comparisons can be made.
- Independently verifiable: The integrity of the information remains constant regardless of the individual reporting it.
- Availability: The information should be accessible where it is needed. In the hospital or clinic environment, the information should usually be available at the patient’s location.
Describe the framework for nursing informatics as defined by the American Nurses Association.
The American Nurses Association (ANA) has laid out standards for the informatics nurse specialist. These standards are based on a “problem-solving framework” which includes both traditional aspects of nursing as well as those aspects more specific to the informatics nurse. The standards are:
- Assessment
- Diagnosis
- Identification of outcomes
- Planning implementation
- System planning
The ANA has also set standards for the performance that informatics nurses should attain. The performance issues include quality assurance, review of performance evaluation methods, and ensuring that the practice of nursing informatics is effective. The informatics nurse should also work to create guidelines for research, ethics, peer cooperation, allocation of resources, and effective communication. Finally, they should be willing to help other nurses who want to improve their skills in informatics and computer science.
Describe the history of the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).
The Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA) was passed in 1996 to protect patient privacy rights. This is especially important given the large amount of sensitive data that is now handled electronically through large databases. Some key compliance dates for HIPAA are listed below (for large health plans):
- October 16, 2002: Electronic transactions and code sets are to be identified.
- April 14, 2003: Privacy standards are to be set.
- July 30, 2004: Standards for employer identification are to be set.
- April 21, 2005: Standards for system and data security are to set.
- May 23, 2007: Standards for provider identification are to be set.
These uniform standards will allow the data repositories of large healthcare systems to be efficiently monitored for adherence to the HIPAA regulations, thus assuring patient rights to privacy are honored.
Describe the informatics nurse responsibilities.
The following is a list of responsibilities that are required of the informatics nurse:
- Teaching the policies involved with information systems including the standard operating procedures and system security features.
- Deciding the effectiveness of the computer system based on overall performance (e.g., system response time) and how well the system design is working.
- Making sure the system works as it was designed to by verifying that the system produces results that are expected and troubleshooting problems.
- Deciding when computer systems need to be upgraded based on gauging the obsolescence of the hardware and system compatibility with modern software.
- Finding new ways to use technology in nursing by looking for new and novel applications of technolow.
- Ensuring compliance in regulations regarding patient information including the patient privacy regulations.
- Managing projects as needed.
- Conducting research into the field of nursing informatics.
Describe the International Council of Nurses (ICN) Code of Ethics for nurses in regards to patients.
The following is an outline of the ICN (International Council of Nurses) Code of Ethics for nurses in regards to patients:
- Foremost, the nurse’s responsibility is to the patient. The patient must receive the best possible care and their rights and well-being are respected and maintained.
- Respect and support patient rights, religious beliefs, values, and customs. The patient should be able to live their way of life while under care. This means that they should be allowed to follow their culture and traditions as best as possible.
- Make sure the patient gives informed consent for any treatment. The patient has the ultimate say as to whether or not they receive treatment. The right of the patient to accept or refuse a given treatment through the informed consent process is essential.
- Keep patient information confidential. The patient’s right to privacy is protected under law and should be respected.
In addition, nurses should be proponents for community health and act to promote environmentalism.
Describe the International Council of Nurses (ICN) Code of Ethics for nurses in regards to coworkers.
The International Council of Nurses (ICN) has developed a Code of Ethics for nurses in regards to coworkers. Healthcare is a team oriented process with all attention focused on the well-being of the patient. Effective interaction with other team members (coworkers) is a key to success in this environment. The following bullet points are key areas that need attention:
- Keep relationships with coworkers cooperative and professional
- Make sure that patients are safe and promptly deal with unprofessional or dangerous conduct on the part of coworkers
- Take care not to delegate more work than the individual is able to handle
- Promote continuing education in the workplace
- Keep the lines of communication open between departments, management, etc.
This is an area that needs constant monitoring by workers and management. Any drift from optimal conditions should be addressed before the patient is exposed to any negative effects of poor teamwork.
Describe the role of chief information officer, chief privacy officer, and chief e-health officer.
There are three management level positions that deal with the functioning of an organization’s information system:
- Chief Information Officer: The chief information officer (CIO) is the head of the information services department. This individual is in charge of hiring information systems staff budgeting for maintenance of the system, and designing and implementing new systems as needed. Generally, the CIO holds a masters or doctorate degree in computer science.
- Chief Privacy Officer: The chief privacy officer (CPO) is a federally mandated position at any facility that treats patients. This individual is responsible for all forms of patient information. The title of CPO is generally bestowed on an employee already working for the organization rather than being an entirely separate job.
- Chief E-health Officer: The e-health officer is a relatively new position created by the onset of interactive health websites. The e-health officer is generally in charge of promoting and enabling the use of online interactive patient services.
Describe the role of network administrator and trainer.
Network administrators and trainers are two types of support personnel needed primarily when an organization implements a new information system. They perform the following functions:
Network administrator: Network administrators are given access to all areas of the system and must be held to high standards of ethical accountability. These individuals take on the bulk of managing existing systems and planning new systems. They should also help the organization make hardware decisions and manage the lower level information systems employees such as PC specialists and programmers.
Trainer: Trainers teach the organization’s staff how to use computer systems. Trainers may be full-time employees of the organization, provided by the software vendor as part of the system contract, or temporary workers. They need to be up to date regarding healthcare information systems and the functions they support.
Describe the role of security officer for information systems.
Since there are many regulatory patient privacy requirements (e.g., HIPAA), security officers are essential members of the healthcare information system team. It is important that confidential information is not accessible to unauthorized users or abused by employees. The security officer is responsible for assigning system access codes, making sure passwords are kept secret (and updated), and monitoring the overall use of the system. They may also be in charge of the physical security of the computers and peripherals. A stolen hard drive or laptop computer could contain sensitive information and be a target for information thieves. It is important that the security officer work with the information systems department and the organization’s management to create enterprise wide policies and procedures, which describe the proper and ethical use of equipment andinformation. These standards should apply to all staff members.
Describe the roles of analysts, liaisons, and programmers.
There are three types of support personnel that are typically involved in information systems:
- Analyst: Analysts must have a background in healthcare information systems. Healthcare information system analysts usually have degrees in the medical field with certificates in computer studies. Their primary job is to define the way in which clinical data is entered into and processed by the information system.
- Liaison: Liaisons are hospital employees chosen to work with the information system team while remaining at their primary clinical post. Liaisons act as a conduit between the clinical and information systems staff.
- Programmers: Programmers may be full-time hospital employees, but are most likely contract workers or employees of the software vendor. These individuals write the machine language code necessary for system functions. They often work with the analyst and liaison in order to accomplish their tasks.
Discuss acquiring recommendations form national quality organizations: National Quality Forum.
The National Qualify Forum (NQF) has endorsed a set of safe practices that can be used to assess and develop the organization’s patient safety culture. Practices encompass creating a safe culture as well as specific steps to ensure safe practices throughout the organization. According to NQF, the four elements needed to create and sustain a patient safety culture include the following:
- Leadership must ensure structures are in place for organization-wide awareness and compliance with safety measures, including adequate resources and direct accountability.
- Measurement, analysis, and feedback must track safety and allow for interventions.
- Team-based patient care with adequate training and performance improvement activities must be organization-wide.
- Safety risk must be continuously identified and interventions taken to reduce patient risk.
Discuss acquiring recommendations from national quality organizations: Leapfrog initiatives related to safe practices.
Leapfrog has developed a number of specific initiatives related to safe practices, including:
- Implementation of a computerized physicians order entry system that includes software to detect and prevent errors with a goal of decreasing prescribing errors by more than 50%.
- Evidence-based hospital referral, requiring referral to hospitals that demonstrate the best results with high-risk conditions and surgeries; these are assessed, according to the number of procedures or treatments done each year and outcome data with a goal of reducing mortality rates by 40%.
- Intensive care unit physician staffing requiring specially trained specialists (intensivists) with a goal of reducing mortality rates by 40%.
Leapfrog Safe Practices Score, which assesses the progress a health care organization makes on thirty safe practices that Leapfrog has identified as reducing the risk of harm to patients.
Discuss acquiring recommendations from national quality organizations: Leapfrog initiatives related to preventing medical errors.
Leapfrog is a consortium of health care purchasers/employers providing benefits to millions of Americans. The focus initially was on reducing health care costs by preventing medical errors and “leaping forward” by rewarding hospitals and health care organizations that improve safety and quality of care. Leapfrog has developed a number of initiatives to improve safety. These initiatives can be valuable tools in assessing and developing a patient safety culture. Leapfrog provides an annual Hospital and Quality Safety Survey to assess progress, releases regional data, and encourages voluntary public reporting. Leapfrog has instituted the Leapfrog Hospital Rewards Program as a pay-forperformance program to reward organizations for showing improvement in key measures. One initiative includes preventing medical errors. Purchasers of health care agree to the base purchase of health care based on four principals:
- Educating enrollees about patient safety and providing comparative performance data
- Recognizing and rewarding health care organizations that demonstrate improvement in preventing errors
- Making health plans accountable for implementing these principles
- Advocating for these principles with clients by using benefits consultants
Discuss acquiring recommendations from national quality organizations: Quality indicators from the Agency for Healthcare Reasearch and Quality.
The quality indicators (QIs) from the Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality are distributed as a software tool free of charge to health care organizations to help them identify adverse events or potential adverse events that require further study. This software is an invaluable aid in assessing and developing the organization’s patient safety culture. Current quality indicators include the following:
- Prevention QIs use patient discharge data to determine conditions that require ambulatory care to prevent rehospitalization.
- Inpatient QIs measure quality of care through types of procedures, use of procedures, and mortality rates associated with procedures or conditions.
- Patient Safety QIs use data regarding adverse events and complications related to surgeries, medical procedures, and childbirth.
- Pediatric QIs use patient discharge data to screen for problems related to pediatric exposure to health care and analyze system changes that may prevent problems.
The data indicators may also be used to assess safety factors at an area (e.g., county) level per 100,000 population.
Discuss acquiring recommendations from national quality organizations: Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality and evidence-based practice centers.
The Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality promotes evidence-based practice through funding of evidence-based practice centers (EPCs) to develop evidence-based practice guidelines for dissemination and use in development of patient care plans, establishing insurance coverage, and development of educational materials. These centers issue research reports, including meta-analysis of all relevant research, on a wide range of topics, such as “Pain Management Interventions for Elderly Patients with Hip Fracture,” which include morbidity/mortality rates and cost-effectiveness associated with different treatments and procedures. Research focuses on areas of significance to people receiving Medicaid and Medicare. For example, five EPCs are engaging in research on technology for the Centers for Medicaid and Medicare, which focuses on topics related to the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Partners, such as insurance companies, professional associations, patient advocacy groups, and employers, nominate topics. Guides are available for both consumers and clinicians.
Discuss acquiring recommendations from national quality organizations: Institute of Medicine and National Committee for Quality Assurance safety issues.
The Institute of Medicine called for accrediting agencies to ensure organizations focus on patient safety. In response, the National Committee for Quality Assurance has addressed safety issues as part of its accreditation standards. Guidelines directed at managed care organizations provide useful information for other organizations as well. Organizations should:
- Educate staff regarding clinical safety by providing information.
- Provide collaborative training within the network related to safe clinical practice.
- Combine data within the network (organization) on adverse outcomes and polypharmacy.
- Make improving patient safety a priority for quality improvement activities.
Provide and distribute information about safe practices that includes information about computerized pharmacy order systems, physicians trained in intensive care, best practices, and research on safe clinical practices.
Discuss acquiring recommendations from national quality organizations: Institute of Medicine.
The Institute of Medicine (lOM), founded in 1970 under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, is a nonprofit organization that serves an advisory role on health care issues to governmental and nongovernmental decision-makers. The lOM advises the government but is outside of the governmental structure to ensure lack of bias. The lOM issues guidelines based on research and evidence, conducts studies for Congress and other organizations, and conducts a number of epidemiological studies. The lOM is involved in a broad range of activities, issues regular reports, and provides workshops and forums about a health care issues (e.g., obesity]. The lOM has standing committees to focus on specific issues and provide forums for general discussion. Additionally, the lOM provides fellowships to help professionals gain experience and expertise in health-related fields.
