Foundations of Language Learning Flashcards

Question

What is Krashen's Natural Order Theory?

Answer 1

Aspects of language is acquired in a natural order: certain grammatical structures are acquired early (such as -ing before 3rd person -s to regular verbs). One's first language influences the order in which elements of an L2 is acquired.

Answer 2

Students learn most effectively in low-stress learning environments. Affective factors are for example boredom and anxiety. Affective filters interfere with the learning process. Students should not be forced to speak until they feel comfortable doing so. Adults are more likely to develop affective filters than children.

Answer 3

Similar to Krashen's input hypothesis. Emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input, and adds an emphasis on conversational interaction. Negotiate meaning to be understood (paraphrasing, restating, asking for clarification, using context clues, etc.) Best if students are speaking to same level peers.

Answer 4

Students employ them to understand a task at hand and include activities as memorizing, categorizing, summarizing, generalizing, deducing, and using inductive reasoning. More cognitive strategies = more successful in learning an L2.

Answer 5

Refers to strategies that students use to improve their own learning process. Planning, self-monitoring, prioritizing, and setting goals. Highly correlated with student success.

Answer 6

Individuals learn by gradually transforming declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. Learn about a concept (declarative) through observation, and will progress into procedural knowledge (mirrors acquired language and learned language). Goal is to make students work more autonomously.

Answer 7

Predictable learning stages --> will help ESL teachers design appropriate learning activities. 1. Silent period/Preproduction period - ELL is uncomfortable speaking. knows about 500 words. Build receptive skills to gain confidence. 2. Private speech (early production stage) - ELL creates one- or two-word phrases using 1,000 words. Teachers should pose questions that allow abbreviated answers and scaffold their instruction. 3. Lexical Chunks (speech emergent stage) - ELL uses 3,000 words to form short phrases and sentences with frequent grammatical errors. Short conversations with peers, read beginning stories. 4. Formulaic speech (intermediate language proficiency) - ELL uses 6,000 words to make complex sentences, state opinions, and share thoughts. Can study content subjects in English. Teachers can shift the instructional focus to writing. 5. Experimental or simplified speech (advanced language proficiency) - the learner approaches fluency and can make generalizations about grammar and semantics. The learner may exit the ESL program but continue to receive assistance with writing and in the content areas.

Answer 8

Conscious vs. unconscious effort. Context: Naturally integrated in parts of daily life vs. primarily learned in classroom environment. Universal grammar vs. affected by L1 grammar. Doesn't require instruction vs. Requires instruction. Needed to function in life and satisfy desires vs. varied motivation Cognitive load and affective filters are less important vs. These factors are central to the rate of progress.

Answer 9

Occurs when a child obtains fluency in an L2 after the L1 is established (usually around the age of 3.)

Answer 10

The child is raised in a bilingual environment from birth or before the age of 3.

Answer 11

States that children who are exposed to several languages will have delayed speech and incomplete proficiency. Recent research has overturned this hypothesis.

Answer 12

Speakers switch from one language to another in the same conversation, often in the same sentence. Very common among spanish-english speakers.

Answer 13

Speakers are unable to think of a word in the language they are speaking, so they resort to their L1. May also signal solidarity with other bilingual speakers, or to convey figures of speech not available in the other language. Code-switching also occurs in different contexts where either the L1 or L2 is preferred. Code-switching can also occur within a language when a speaker switches dialects.

Answer 14

A version of a learned language produced at any given moment by a language learner. It contains elements and structures of both L1 and L2, but may differ from one another. Considered to be a strategy used to compensate for limited proficiency in the L2. Normal, but risks becoming fossilized if a learner lacks the motivation to improve upon it. Fossilization often occurs when a learner achieves a level of proficiency that allows for effective but limited communication.

Answer 15

1. Language transfers - when a learner applies knowledge of rules from L1 to L2. Can be positive and negative, such as when the learner relies of false cognates. 2. Overgeneralization - learner extends a language rule beyond its actual scope, such as adding -ed to create past tense, resulting in errors like "swimmed" 3.

Answer 16

The study of differences and similarities between languages. Teachers can use it to anticipate language transfer issues.

Answer 17

A characteristic that is shared by all the world's languages. Absolute universals - all languages have them, like syllables, consonants, and vowels) Non-Absolute universals - features that are found in a high degree or statistical regularity but also have exceptions. Implicational universals - language properties that occur together - "If a language has A, then it will have B."

Answer 18

Bilinguals or emerging bilinguals will draw on a common pool of cognates and linguistic abilities to speak either language. The L1 abilities will facilitate L2 learning. "Dual Iceberg Model" SUP states that languages are separate systems and stored in different parts of the brain, so no positive transfer is available.

Answer 19

1. Memorization strategies - remember and retrieve information. Repetition and formulaic expressions are examples. 2. Cognitive strategies - Analyzing or drawing conclusions, allows students to manipulate the target language. 3. Elaboration - Connecting information to what is already known. 4. Compensation strategies - lacks vocabulary - code-switching. 5. Metacognitive strategies - used by students to improve their own learning habits - self-monitoring, planning. 6. Affective strategies - control one's own emotions. Requests for clarification might be examples as students seek reassurance or reinforcement of what they already know. 7. Social strategies - employ language in a social setting. Role-playing.

Answer 20

To identify the learning strategies used by foreign language students. Used both for research purposes and to give individual learners insight into their own learning profile.

Answer 21

An approach meant to help ELLs with English proficiency transition into the general classroom, usually in secondary school. Emphasizes cognitive and metacognitive approaches to learning by explicitly teaching learning strategies and encouraging students to plan and evaluate their undertakings (cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social/affective strategies)

Answer 22

A focus on helping ELLs who are likely proficient in social English (BICS) gain proficiency in Academic English in order for the transition into general education to happen.

Answer 23

Students vary in their preference for visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement), or tactile (touch) learning. Research shows that it's better to incorporate these styles depending on task, rather than on individual students. Provide a variety of ways to learn.

Answer 24

1. Cognitive load - the extent to which students are unfamiliar or haven't practiced concepts/content. 2. Cultural load - the untaught, assumed cultural preferences. 3. Language load - the extent to which the lesson language is unfamiliar and stretches beyond the comprehensible input. 4. Learning load - the extent to which the learning activity is unfamiliar or causes stress (like a debate if it hasn't been practiced before).

Answer 25

A broadened definition of intelligence which includes eight forms of intelligence. They reflect different cognitive processes in the brain: visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, linguistic, logical/mathematical, and naturalistic.

Answer 26

Many of the characteristics manifest during normal L2 learning process resembles those of native-speakers with disabilities, leading to frequent misdiagnoses. Learning disabilities rarely manifest in only one language - however, if an L2 learner performs below average in writing and excels in speaking, a disability is likely.

Answer 27

Instrumental motivation - learning the L2 is a tool to achieve a specific goal (job, college). They have integrative motivation if they have a positive view of their future L2 community and wish to join it. Extrinsic motivation refers to focus on rewards or punishment (perform well or badly on a test). Intrinsic motivation refers to having no concern for reward or punishment, but they want to do something for the sake of it. Research show that intrinsic and integrative motivation and more reliable and durable.

Answer 28

The Cognitive domain (thinking), the sensory domain (doing), and the affective domain (feeling).

Answer 29

Bloom's Taxonomy is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills that can help teachers and students in the classroom. Remembering, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create (produce new or orginal work).

Answer 30

Five processes that lead to student growth: Receiving (passive condition), Responding (attentive to learning and responds with positive emotion), Valuing (develops preferences and commitments) Organization (develops a value system, combining elements to create a logial relational framework) Characterizing (internalizes what's been learned and acts in principled ways according to this knowledge)

Answer 31

Students draw on different sources of motivation. 1. The ideal L2 self - the image the learner has of the person they want to become through the process of language learning. 2. The ought-to L2 self - an image driven by a sense of obligation, one imposed by others' expectations. 3. The L2 learning experience - captures situational motivations, the types that arise daily in the classroom. Teachers should find ways to appeal to a student's ideal L2 self in order to ensure persistent and consistent motivation. First they must create the basic motivating conditions in the classroom. Second, they must generate initial, individualized motivation. 3. They must protect that motivation. 4. Positive assessmesment is necessary for sustained motivation, teachers must encourage students to self-monitor.

Answer 32

The perception people have about their competence.

Answer 33

The concept of self-efficacy is used to analyze what students believe is the cause of their success or failure on an academic task. Students tend to attribute academic outcomes on of the four general causes: Ability, Effort, Perceived difficulty, or luck. Students with low self-efficacy attribute academic outcomes to external causes (difficulty; luck). They're less likely to respond constructively to academic setbacks. Students with High Self-efficacy tend to attribute outcomes to internal causes and are likely to respond to setbacks by working harder. Students perform best when they focus on what they can control and when they believe they can influence the outcome.

Answer 34

An attitude of approval or disapproval toward oneself. Three types: general or global self-esteem (broad sense of self worth), situational self-esteem (specific to a certain domain), and task self-esteem (in the context of performing specific tasks or activities). Global self-esteem changes little over time. High self-esteem is linked to better academic results. Conversely, good academic has shown to be important in building situational self-esteem. Learning an L2 - students often experience a gap between what they can express and what they think or feel. A large gap between their genuine self and the self they communicate.

Answer 35

Identify when and why there's an abnormal sense of apprehension. 1) ability to communicate in L2, 2) anxiety that peers will view one's L2 communication in negative terms, and 3) anxiety about evaluations and grades. Anxiety can sometimes lead to greater focus, greater effort, or a sense of competitiveness that can drive a student to mastery.

Answer 36

The inner impediment to free expression or action, often perceived as a defense mechanism due to low self-esteem. It's a critical concept in learning because of the importance of performance to language learning. Learning requires risk-taking and the willingness to make mistakes.

Answer 37

The perceived identity often related to one's L1 = the "original identity" and closely tied to L1 competence. It's challenged by the attempt to learn an L2. The idea can explain why children learn languages more readily than adults as their egos are less full-formed and less rigid. Don't suffer the embarrassment of making mistakes.

Answer 38

The adaptation of one person or group to the culture of another. If the adaptation is complete, it's referred to as assimilation. The acculturation model argues that a person's success in an L2 is directly related to the person's acculturation into the L2 culture.

Answer 39

The completion of the acculturation process - the minority group resembles the majority group.

Answer 40

Two equally dominant cultures mixing and adopting each other's elements (rare).

Answer 41

Individuals who choose to study a second language, often for reasons of personal gain. Linguist Guadalupe Valdes argud that Elective learners usually learn the L2 in an artifical environment, such as a classroom. L1 will always remain dominant.

Answer 42

Forced to speak a second language. For example after immigrating. Learn new language in order to survive and succeed. Achieves greater mastery than elective bilingualism.

Answer 43

Educational policies at various levels influence the ways in which ESL programs are structured and administered in schools.

Answer 44

Different approaches: ESL students are integrated into the broader student community. Schools that celebrate diversity and promote the integration of different lang. communities achieve better language outcomes. If the value of ESL students cultures is recognized, they are more likely to embrace a new culture. Engagement with parents and the community.

Answer 45

Low-income students often lag behind their peers in cognitive abilities, experience emotional deficits, and ongoing stress --> reduces ability to learn. About 50% of ELLs come from low-income families.

Answer 46

The Common Core State Standards hold ELLs to the same standards of ELA proficiency, while recognizing that they might need more time and support. WIDA developed ENglish Language Development (ELD) Frameworks to give teachers and parents a guide to how ELLS could meet the ELA standards. Scales of ENG prof - WIDA (from entering to bridging) - the framework then elaborate benchmarks (standards) by grade and proficiency level. Can be used by teachers to plan, and for instruction delivery in classrooms with different proficiency levels.

Answer 47

Teachers achieve the best outcomes when they utilize frequent, varied, and non-intrusive assessments that address clear learning objectives and transparent state standards. Especially important in ESL due to language disadvantages and being held to the same standards. Teachers use form. ass. to identify what needs to be taught (or re-taught) and how. Teachers should use form ass. prior to starting an instructional unit in order to gauge student knowledge and needs; during instruction to check for understanding, identify needed lesson modifications, and detect students in need of help. Also used after instruction to ensure student comprehension with an eye toward modifying subsequent instruction

Answer 48

Students who learn to read well and early experience wid and growing educational advantages over their peers. In the aggregate, students don't overcome early reading lags later in their schooling, rather, the deficits and the consequences magnify over time. This research underscores the importance of early phonetic instruction and interventions for students at risk.

Answer 49

Means combining phonics instruction with whole language approaches (students are taught in the context of actual reading and writing). Also refers to a combined word work (phon. and voc.) with a reading and writing process. --> Teacher read aloud-->shared reading-->one-on-one help to individ. or small groups reading. Writing should be interactive - writing in small groups or individual.

Answer 50

Students are continuously exposed to the language in many different forms (word walls; written work by students; label objects with various names or descriptive terms), access to appropriate level reading materials,

Answer 51

The background knowledge someone has about a certain topic; information, associations, remembered life experiences, or even emotional responses. Background knowledge is essential to reading comprehension, as written texts rely on implied meanings and a reader's background knowledge. Teachers can help activate student knowledge by posing questions that help students relate the text to what they already know or that prompt them to involve their own experiences. Also raises students' confidence. by demonstrating they have relevant experience.

Answer 52

A balanced reading curriculum --> incorporating a range of activities and reading skills: Phonemic awareness, phonics (sounds and written representation), fluency, vocabulary development, and comprehension. These skills are not enough individually - reading well is a multi-faceted skill that requires attention to context and the ways in which successful communications are structured. Activities can be phonics activities to shared and guided reading, cloze activities (a reading comp. act. where you remove words from a page and let the students guess which words based on context), and teacher prompts that require students to draw connections between texts or search for implied meanings.

Answer 53

By engaging students in something beyond the text, such as subject matter taught in a content classroom, or it might appeal to their interests. The text might have the student follow instructions to create a project, or follow up a reading passage with a small-group or peer-to-peer discussion.

Answer 54

Langauge that is unfamiliar to a student, offers few context clues. Reading and understanding decontextualized language is important for Academic language fluency, but it's less appropriate for early learners. However, it's necessary that students are invited to generalize and abstract texts rather than engage only with concrete and immediate things.

Answer 55

Key feature: Literacy development through the creation of a class-specific text based on a shared student experience (a field trip, for example). Teacher writes the first draft of the text, using student sentences and contributions, which can then be read for practice. The class revisits the text over time and add new vocabulary, new syntax, and expanding the text to relate to new educational experiences. The text serves as a basis for both reading and writing instruction.

Answer 56

Create intrinsic motivation --> Find books that are relevant to students interests, contemporary events, to their different cultures. Pre-reading activities -> activate background knowledge. Element of ownership -> Let students choose the book to read, when to read, or how they will assessed on their reading. Choosing level-appropriate books is critical in order to maintain interest. Make sure students are exposed to reading role models - parents, celebrities, or the teacher.

Answer 57

Goodman argued that students read by systematically processing and compiling sequential information. He said students take rapid surveys of the written text and use it to make predictions on the basis of their background knowledge and assumptions of what to come. Reading this way is a constant interplay between thought and language, and it's more efficient and effective than reading with systematic attention to the text. The better a student is at reading, the less of a text they actually read to understand it.

Answer 58

1) Age appropriate, quality - Texts that stimulate interest (content and theme that part of background knowledge) - Provide the proper conceptual load, or the amount of new versus familiar structures and vocabulary - Furnish sufficient contextual support for the narrative - Do not contain any culturally insensitive references - Are an appropriate length - Represent a diversity of genres - Clear textual layout

Answer 59

Explicit instruction - students are informed of a specific lesson goal, provided with explanations of important concepts. (Learned Language) Implicit instruction - the teacher does not explicitly teach targeted concepts but instead relies on the students to learn them during the course of communication-based activities. (Acquired language) Some skills should be explicitly taught: Reading - vocabulary and syntax of academic language, comprehension strategies (infer meaning from text; synthesize information from multiple texts). Writing - process of writing (planning, drafting, evaluating, revising, and editing) Early stages - phonics instruction and grammatical structures that are least held in common with the students' L1.

Answer 60

Teacher's use of supports to help student understanding of concepts or mastery of skills. Well-chosen literacy scaffolding techniques allow students to engage with texts and writing projects just beyond their proficiency levels (Vygotsky - zones of proximal development) Directed Listening and Thinking Activity (DLTA) - pause a story frequently to ask students questions that lead them to predict what might come next. Shared reading - teacher reads along with the class, modeling things like pronunciation and fluency. Writing - Interactive dialogue journal - a teacher and a student pass a journal back and forth, each writing in response to the others' comments and prompts. Mapping - brainstorming about the words and concepts that relate to a central theme can be used in the planning stages of a writing activity.

Answer 61

Stage of greatest support - teacher models the skill or task. Shared stage - Students contribute to the task, but the teacher still performs the act or records the product. Interactive stage - students and teacher share in both the conceptualizing and the creation of the product. Guided practice - students undertake the task, either alone or in groups with the teacher providing assistance as needed. Independent work stage - the students perform the entire activity without significant teacher assistance. Use the stages successively, or select for use depending on task or classroom composition.

Answer 62

They reinforce each other. Also, pragmatic reason - in the wider world, the students will need all four skills, often simultaneously. Students can read a text, discuss it it, and then write about it (using all skills in one task).

Answer 63

Students learn to read and write more effectively when texts activate their background knowledge (schema). Students are more interested in the texts that relate to their culture, and they use the parts they understand to understand unfamiliar parts. More comprehension points.

Answer 64

Students benefit most when language and content are taught at the same time --> they won't lag behind their peers in content knowledge. It also enables the students to build mental networks of related terms and concepts. Apply English they learn, facilitating memory.

Answer 65

1. Having ESL trained teachers incorporate content knowledge into their curriculum. 2. Having content-trained teachers incorporate English lang. instruction into their curriculum. 3. Having ESL and content instructors work in tandem, either through co-teaching or via a pull-out or push-in model.

Answer 66

Used to model ELL communication and measuring the relative cognitive complexity and the degree to which the experience occurred in a context. The mapping resulted in four quadrants of experience. On a vertical axis, there's Cognitively undemanding experiences. These are BICS - social language. BICS can either be Context Embedded (such as face-to-face conversations with peers) or Context Reduced (social conversations on the phone) On the lower end of the axis, there's Cognitively Demanding Experiences. These are CALPS - academic language. A cognitively demanding, context embedded experience is for example to follow instructions when you're doing somehting. A Cogn. Dem. Context reduced experience is more abstract - like reading an article about the effects on yeast on bread. Planning instruction and assessment requires special attention to which quadrant the experience falls within, and scaffold accordingly.

Answer 67

A series of questions often in an outline form that helps students understand the way a reading passage is organized or how their writing should be organized. Can be used to illustrate a range of rhetorical forms, like compare and contrast: ____ and ____ are alike in some ways and different in others. They are alike because _______, _______, and _____. They are different because _______ and _____. Summary frames are useful for teaching rhetorical forms, for illustrating how to combine sentences to form logical and orderly paragraphs, and for providing examples of transition words.

Answer 68

Language learners need to be exposed to a new word multiple times in order to learn it. Especially Academic Language due to it being uncommon outside the classroom. Strategy: situate the new word in different contexts to add a new layer to student comprehension. Students typically go from being aware of having heard a word before, to understand the use of the word, to understanding it's meaning, and to then using it themselves. Eventually, they'll learn it's related forms (synonyms, antonyms, associated words)

Answer 69

Central tenet in constructivist theory. Anticipation Guide - A series of engaging questions about the unit to come. Provides insight about student background knowledge. Know-want to know-learned (KWL) Chart - Lists students prior knowledge explicitly in the first column.

Answer 70

A taxonomy of human cognitive skills ranging from the concrete to the abstract. Postulates that students' progress in learning by mastering progressively more abstract cognitive skills. Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis (compare and contrast), synthesis, and evaluation.

Answer 71

The comprehension levels which students can respond to a text. In the beginning lang level, students will strive for literal comprehension - accurate understanding of the facts and events recounted in a text. More experienced readers achieve inferential comprehension - using context clues and outside experiences to discover implied meanings in a text. Asking students about inferential meaning is a good way to bring their background knowledge into the classroom. Students engage in evaluative comprehension when they offer an assessment of a claim in a text or use a text as a basis for expressing an opinion. Teachers can extend evaluative conversations by asking students for justifications or evidence for their claims, and use them as forum for putting targeted test vocabulary to use, such as analyze, persuade, and contrast.

Answer 72

Don't use restatements because it won't build Academic Lang. Instead, teachers should repeat their statements more slowly and/or use different intonations or stress to call student attention to the aspects of the sentence that cause confusion or are critical to understanding. Paraphrase by using synonyms, but then revert to using the original word. If the students still can't understand, teachers should aim at explanations that elaborate rather than simplify the original statement.

Answer 73

Communication that occurs via words. Can include all language skills. Oral communication is only speaking and listening. Verbal communication can convey more meaning beyond word choice: Prosodic aspects of language include pitch, rhythm, length, and loudness. ELLs must learn how to identify the main point of an utterance while setting aside details or irrelevant information. In another context, they might have to focus on the details. They need to learn the differences between recaping an event to a peer, and the skills needed to give an oral presentation. Instruction and practice is needed in each.

Answer 74

Early stages - nodding, smiling, performing whatever action is being asked (Silent period). Non-verbal signals and reference to illustrations of realia. Develop capacity to signal comprehension by choosing one of a pair or set of options (Where did John go? Home, or to the store?) Capacity to formulate Simple answers without scaffolds - answer in full sentences and provide multi-sentence summaries that reveal his or her comprehension of literal and implied meaning, central and supporting arguments, and connections to other texts and real-world experiences.

Answer 75

A word or phrase used to organize speech, manage the flow of a conversation, or convey an emotional attitude. Can be critical in conveying attitude. "well" "um" "you know" "right" and "maybe" DM are heavily bound to context, and poses difficulties for ELLs. Difficult to decode pragmatic use in speech. Teachers can show students how stress and tone in different discourse markers can signal attitude.

Answer 76

If the video or audio is at their zone of proximal development might need to watch the film or listen multiple times, especially with multiple questions with different levels of meaning Teachers can facilitate student listening comprehension by identifying in advance what they are listening for: The main idea, details in support of an argument, or the attitude of one or more interlocutors toward a proposed idea. Provide suggestive clues ("the narrator uses an interesting expression to explain ..... what is it?")

Answer 77

Teaching explicit vocabulary, rhetorical devices, sentence structures, or content that students will encounter in a subsequent lesson. Especially useful before Listening Comprehension Activities so that students don't disengage when they encounter unfamiliar words or forms.

Answer 78

Dividing a lesson or a text into mentally digestible parts, often by stopping and inviting the students to pose questions, draw connections to prior knowledge, or anticipate what's to come. Especially useful when reading to ensure that students understand the text well enough to understand what's to come, either by asking direct comp. questions or inviting students to predict what will come next.

Answer 79

A specific type of lesson summary or wrap-up, usually used to revisit a key point or reinforce a specific learning goal, and to assess how successfully students mastered the lesson.

Answer 80

The practice of sounding out written words. Students can only be successful if they understand the basics of phonics - how sounds correlate with letters, as well as blend sounds and segment words into discrete sounds.

Answer 81

The definitional approach - definitions are provided or they look them up, and they are drilled until they commit the meanings to memory. A structural approach - emphasizes the morphological features of a word - the root, the prefixes, and the suffixes. Once students learn the recurring morphemes in English, they can deduce the meaning of a word in isolation without relying on its context. The contextual approach - provide students with multiple examples of the word used in a genuine context, allowing the students to infer the meaning without an explicit definition. A categorical approach - Groups words into lists (categories) based on a semantic similarity, like words associated with driving a car (steering wheel, to brake, to accelerate, etc.) A mnemonic approach - building associations between the target words and mental images so that students evoke the image when they hear the target word.

Answer 82

Fluency is highly correlated with comprehension. Students have limited mental attention, and the more reading functions they can accomplish automatically -such as decoding skills-, the more attention they have to grasp the broader meanings of a text.

Answer 83

Prewriting, Drafting, Revising, Editing, and Publishing. Students focus on the correct use of conventions in the editing phase well after the creative and expansive portions of the task.

Answer 84

A sheltered instruction program: Intermediate ELLs are taught the full curriculum in English and are given appropriate support to further their content learning. SEI programs explicitly target content knowledge and only address English Development indirectly by creating Highly contextualized learning environments in which students can practice their English skills. SEI teachers deliver the same content as ordinary content instructors but attempt to communicate that content in ways that don't depend on student English proficiency. They often simplify, use demonstrations and realia, and allow students to use L1 resources to supplement their learning. Some variations of SEI are Sheltered Observation Protocol (SIOP), the Specially Designed Academic Instruction in English (SDAIE) model, guided language acquisition design (GLAD), quality teaching for English learners (QTEL) and the Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach (CALLA).

Answer 85

Developed in the early 1990s as a 30-item survey to evaluate the effectiveness of a teacher's planning, implementation, and assessment of sheltered English instruction. Still widely used to evaluate sheltered English programs. SIOP divides the instructional process into eight components: Lesson preparation, Building background, comprehensible input, strategies, interaction, practice and application, lesson delivery, and review and assessment.

Answer 86

A teaching method that teaches language indirectly by means of teaching content in the target language. CBI is an umbrella term that subsumes all teaching methods-such as CLIL and sheltered instruction-that teaches language and content simultaneously.

Answer 87

A concept developed by Peter Skehan in the late 1990s - a framework for understanding the complexity of learning tasks in an L2 classroom. 3 factors contribute to the complexity of a task: 1) Code complexity - determined by language factors, such as vocabulary and sentence complexity. 2) Cognitive complexity - the nature of cognitive processing required of the students and whether they are accustomed to that type of cognitive processing. 3) Communicative stress - time constraints or uncomfortable group dynamics. Effective teachers will scale the scaffolding they provide to match the complexity of the task evaluated within this framework.

Answer 88

TBLT - teaching method that promotes student language learning by accomplishing real-world tasks, for example, ordering a pizza or buying a phone. Proponents argue that students practice both formal aspects of successful communication (Linguistic competence) and the social aspect of communication.

Answer 89

Launched in 2002. Attempted to identify the most important skills students need to learn in order to succeed. Shifted focus from the three R's (reading, writing, arithmetic) and the objective of providing students with content knowledge, to reflect the transformative effect of the internet --> They would not succeed by knowing things, but by knowing how to do things. After revision, the three R's became the 4 C's --> Communication, critical thinking, collaboration, and creativity.

Answer 90

Demonstrate the key steps by using both actions and words. Visual displays, such as flow charts, which divides the activity into identifiable stages. Supplement verbal instructions with written summaries. Chunk the instructions or task, pausing to check for understanding before demonstrating the next step.

Answer 91

Standards = learning objectives. Standardized assessments create more equal schools, and provides schools and policymakers information about the need for more resources or educational reform. Criticism - forces teachers to teach toward the exam --> 2015 Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) scaled back the schedule of standardized exams prescribed by the previous No Child Left Behind (NCLB)

Answer 92

A method of systematizing instruction and ensuring that the various elements in a lesson plan fit together and build on one another toward clearly articulated objectives.

Answer 93

The process of ensuring that what is taught corresponds to the expected learning standards. A process that ensures there are no gaps or redundancies in what is being taught, and that the course covers the learning objectives. CM includes allocating instructional time to the various topics to be taught, often in proportion to the topics relative weight on standardized exams.

Answer 94

Federal law (Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Equal Educational Opportunities Act (EEOA) of 1974) stipulates that public schools must provide the means for ELLs to participate "meaningfully and equally" in educational programs. --> Language services to achieve Eng. proficiency. Practices in place includes identifying ELLs upon intake, monitor ELL progress in English and content areas, and ensure that ELLs do not exit language service programs until they have demonstrated proficiency in reading, writing, speaking, and listening. The law also stipulates that ELLs be privded with special ed. The law leaves room for state and local authorities to decide what kind of program to offer ELLs. The Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA, 2015) specifies that ELL progress should be assessed annually.

Answer 95

2010 - A majority of states adopted a common set of standards (the Common core). The ELA (English Language & Arts) standards set benchmarks for student literacy skills in the various subject matter areas. English Language Development (ELD) programs utilize second-language instructional practices to assist students with limited English Proficiency. An ELD can be seen as a type of scaffolding program designed to help ELLs reach the same standards of literacy as native speakers.

Answer 96

ELD standards are designed to help educators identify and meet the specific needs of ELLs - they identify a range of English Proficiency Levels (ELPs - beginner, intermediate, advanced). Might also add level of support (substantial, moderate, or light support). Students who's proficiency hasn't developed in 6 years are treated as a separate proficiency level and design differentiated lessons to meet their needs.

Answer 97

An assessment method is considered reliable if it yields similar results when retaken. Factors that affect reliability include day-to-day wellbeing of the student, the physical environment of the test, the way it's administered, and the subjectivity of the scorer. The nature of the exam questions are the biggest threat to reliability.

Answer 98

An assessment is considered valid if it measures what it's intended to measure. One common issue is when questions are written at a level which the students can't understand. In other words, student mistakes might be due to question comprehension, and not content knowledge. Factors internal to the students, such as anxiety, lack of self-esteem, often lower results and thereby reducing validity of a measure of student knowledge.

Answer 99

An assessment has predictive validity if a score on the test is an accurate predictor of future success in the same domain. SAT exams purport to have validity in predicting student success in college.

Answer 100

An assessment is practical if it uses an appropriate amount of human and budgetary resources.

Answer 101

An assessment is considered biased if it disadvantages certain groups of students, such as students of a certain gender, race, cultural background, or socioeconomic class. Content bias - the subject matter of a question or assessment is familiar to one group and not another. Attitudinal bias - a teacher has preconceived idea about the likely success of an assessment of a particular individual or group. Method bias - the format of an assessment is unfamiliar to a given group of students. Language bias - an assessment utilizes idioms, collocations, or cultural references unfamiliar to a group of students. Translation bias - educators attempt to translate content-area assessments intoa student's native language --> rough and hurried translations often result in a loss of nuance important for accurate assessment.

Answer 102

1st gen - typically single essay question which a teacher graded subjectively on a full spectrum of language criteria - syntax, content, organization, spelling, and penmanship. Unrelated short-answer questions were given without supporting context. 2nd gen - multiple choice or true/false questions --> solved subjective grading, but left each question devoid of context. One question could only assess one skill or concept. 3rd gen - attempted to test language used in authentic contexts, often by having students analyze a real life text or perform an authentic writing task. Subjective in nature, teachers began to use rubrics to reduce the uncertainty involved in grading

Answer 103

A student or a teacher collects a student's work over time for eventual formative or summative assessment. Valuable tool for ESL writing proficiency. Portfolios can be highly individualized or differentiated - allowing students to be evaluated in terms of progress rather than by comparison with peers. Making progress over time evident. Highly motivational, and can remind students of the processes involved in writing (drafts). To be effective, portfolio assessments should be accompanied by clear rubrics and frequent student-teacher conversations that clarify expectations.

Answer 104

To identify a student's level of proficiency in the target language in order to guide his or her placement in a program or school. - should test an appropriate range of language skills - vocabulary, grammar, production, and reception skills. Ideally, it will offer an initial diagnosis of student strength or weakness in order to help teachers provide early efficacious instruction.

Answer 105

Used to identify students in need of English Language Assistance. Required by federal law (Civil rights act; Equal Educational Opportunities ACT, EEOA 1974) School districts must have procedures in place to screen newly arriving students for potential language assistance. Usually starts with a Home Language Survey and formal English instruction. If little or no exp --> identification assessment. CELDT is used in California

Answer 106

Assessment used to determine whether an ESL student has reached sufficient proficiency to be classified as a fluent English speaker and exit the English program. Federal law requires state to perform assessment proficiency every year, but it does not specify the criteria that a state must use in making reclassification decisions. Most states consider many factors (test score, parental and teacher input). Overall criteria for reclassification differ widely by state--critics suggest that the reclassification is heavily biased towards basic English proficiency, but does not effectively measure student English proficiency in the content areas.

Answer 107

Designed to reveal a student's strengths and weaknesses. Unlike a placement exam, a diagnostic exam is not used to determine the appropriate level of instruction for a student, but the results can be used to tailor instruction or provide the student with an awareness of areas in need of improvement. Focuses on direction for future instruction rather than to assess what the student's have learned/achieved.

Answer 108

Achievement tests measure whether students have learned what has been taught (gained knowledge and skills targeted by instruction). Typically summative. Language proficiency tests are used to evaluate a students' overall language ability at a given moment in time rather than their mastery of recent classroom lessons. TOEFL tests are used to assess Language proficiency.

Answer 109

Assessments can be used to evaluate individual student progress, or the overall ESL program. Identify areas of improvement. All aspects are not quantifiable - such as ELL integration socially in the school culture.

Answer 110

students demonstrate their learning by performing a task rather than by answering questions in a traditional test format. Proponents argue that they lead students to use high-level cognitive skills as they focus on how to put their knowledge to use and plan a sequence of stages in an activity or presentation. Real-world scenarios --> often appreciated by the students. Critics say PBA's are difficult and time-consuming for teachers to construct and for students to perform. ALso requires a well-constructed and detailed rubric.

Answer 111

Short, frequent assessments designed to measure student progress toward meeting curriculum benchmarks. Teachers design probes (short assessments) that target specific skills (spelling probe administered weekly that requires students to spell 10 unfamiliar but level-appropriate words). Teachers then track the data over time to measure student progress toward defined grade-level goals. Clear advantages - if structured well, the probes have high reliability and validity. Provide clear and objective evidence of student progress - makes it clear for students and parents. Problem - doesn't clarify cause of potential weaknesses.

Answer 112

An assessment designed to closely resemble something that a student does, or will do, in the real world. For example, write a narration of an event that has antecedents and consequents spread out in time--like what caused a traffic accident. The type of assessment require a student to exercise advanced cognitive skills (solving problems, integrating information, performing deductions), integrate background knowledge and confront ambiguity.

Answer 113

When students grade one another's work based on a teacher provided framework --> usually used as formative assessment, and not summative. Requires metacognition, cooperative work, and interpersonal skills. Difficult for lower-performing students as they might not offer much feedback.

Answer 114

Culture in general is an integrated pattern of knowledge, belief, and behavior, held by a particular group --> learned and transmitted through generations. What people Do, Believe or Know, and Make and Use.

Answer 115

External culture (material culture) - objects and physical space people use to express their shared culture. Internal culture (non-material culture) - the shared pattern of thought of social behavior that exist as collective beliefs and customs. Values, family structure, social roles, beliefs and expectations, and worldview. Elements of internal culture have a greater influence on how students learn.

Answer 116

The assertion that language has a strong constraining influence on thought - speakers of different languages have different worldviews. Influences perception of reality.

Answer 117

Useful tool for understanding cultural differences. Hofstede conducted a multinational survey of national values and concluded that key differences could be explained along six dimensions: (A) Individualism vs. Collectivism (I or We) (B) Uncertainty avoidance index - the degree people are comfortable with uncertainty and ambiguity (C) Power distance index - the extent to which people expect hierarchy versus equality (D) Long-term vs. Short-term orientation - a measure of whether people are pragmatic toward change or prefer to preserve cultural values (E) Indulgence vs. restraint - promotion of leisure and self-gratification (F) Masculinity vs. Femininity - masculinity as a preference for assertive behavior, achievement, and material success, whereas femininity refers to a preference for modesty, cooperation, and caring for others.

Answer 118

Individualistic Cultures - value individual achievement and development above those of group success or cohesion. Value freedom and individual initiative and tend to ascribe success and failure to individual traits such as motivation and intelligence. Encourages students to stand out from the group; students that don't are often perceived as mediocre and underachieving. Collectivist cultures - value group harmony and social acceptance, may see standing out as a cause for concern or stress. Education is less the means to individual achievement and fulfillment, and instead a means to social acceptance and fulfilling an expected role.

Answer 119

An utterance aimed at achieving something such as a request, promise, complaint, or apology. The form speech acts take in a given language and culture are often highly standardized and routinized. A question such as "Do you have a dollar?" is actually a request for money, and might be difficult for a non-native speaker to grasp due to lack of cultural competence.

Answer 120

A majority of ELLs were born in the United States. Approx. 75% have legal status. The 25% that do not entered the states legally, but then failed to leave. Reasons for immigration: Family reunification, Refugee/asylum, Diversity Lottery Program.

Answer 121

School districts cannot exclude students on the basis of immigration status. However, unauthorized immigrants are often afraid to enroll their students in school, or to engage with school officials, out of fear of being reported to immigration authorities.

Answer 122

Motivation for migrating. Push factors - the situation or factors in the home country make people leave (lack of economic opportunities, war, natural disaster, and repression or discrimination are the most common) Pull factors - attractive features of the destination country. Most common factors - economic opportunity, prospect of reuniting with family members, and social and political freedom.

Answer 123

The entry of people into the US from a location other than their country of birth. Can be refugees that flee to one country before they enter the US, or first migrate to a country with more lenient immigration policies, and after that stage economic or family-based immigration to the US. ELLs who have gone through secondary migration are more likely to have experienced interrupted or uneven schooling.

Answer 124

Accommodation - Occurs when an individual accepts certain elements of the new culture, especially those necessary for public life in school or at work, but remains many elements of the first culture. Biculturalism - occurs when a person functions fully and simultaneously in both cultures, balancing each without a drive to either assimilate or exclude the new culture.

Answer 125

Aspects of culture that are shared by all human societies. George Murdock created a list of more than 70 cultural universals. Fire-making, Incest taboos, inheritance rules, among a few. Some Cultural traits arise independently from those that are spread through contact, or cultural diffusion. The forces of globalization has rapidly spread cultural diffusion

Answer 126

The feelings, confusion, or alienation a person may experience when first living, studying, or working in a new culture. In broad terms, a person experiences culture shock when hr or she is taken out of a cultural context that provided them with reinforcement and a sense of control.

Answer 127

Individuals progress through various stages of culture shock. In the first stage - Contact: the honeymoon stage. The individuals feel excitement and tend to focus on similarities. In stage two - Disintegration: Focus on differences. May feel alienated. In stage 3 - Reintegration: the individual rejects the new culture. The fourth stage - Autonomy: The individual feels more competent in the new culture and relax the previous defensiveness. The fifth stage - Independence: The individual feels comfortable in the new setting and is able to offer generalizations and perspectives on the process of cultural adaptation.

Answer 128

All people adapt in different ways, rates, and degrees. Most important factor in adjusting is language proficiency. 2nd factor - personality type (outgoing individuals tend to adjust quickly) 3rd factor - Cultural intelligence: consciousness of cultural differences and acceptance of what they are --> develop strategies in response. 4th factor - social and family support networks --> better adjustment. 5th - emotional intelligence - knowing the cause of emotions and how to regulate them in response. Sixth - Response of the host community

Answer 129

Educational Context - Cultural Congruence exists when classroom experiences and instruction reinforce, or are at least consistent with, student home cultures. A culturally congruent classroom acts as a bridge between a student's first and learned cultures. How? incorporate content from student cultures or adapt their teaching techniques to reflect student learning preferences or customary patterns of interaction.

Answer 130

Occurs when several distinct cultural groups and traditions coexist in a single society without an impetus towards assimilation to the majority culture. In situations where many cultures exist, Cultural pluralism is not seen as a problem to be overcome, but rather a resource to be utilized in the education process.

Answer 131

Prejudice - negative opinion about an individual or group without basis or sufficient knowledge. Ethnocentrism - the belief that one own's culture is superior to others. In contrast to cultural relativism which recognizes that all cultures has its value. Stereotype - hold a simplified and overgeneralized view of a group, often witha critical or prejudiced view. Teachers should try to discuss expressions of cultural bias - having predisposed opinions about a culture - when they occur.

Answer 132

Occurs when unconscious stereotypes or opinions influence our behavior, often in contradiction to our consciously held beliefs. We all hold implicit bias because the human mind tends to generalize and simplify to save cognitive energy in a complex world.

Answer 133

The tendency to attribute the negative behavior of others to a personality flaw, while attributing one own's negative behavior (or people like ourselves) to situational, environmental factors. Confirmation bias is the tendency to make quick first impressions about a person or situation, overvalue information that confirms that judgment, and undervalue information that discounts it.

Answer 134

The tendency to attribute positive motivations and personality characteristics to people like ourselves and not to people we perceive as different.

Answer 135

Strong, positive correlation. ELLs are disproportionately at risk for academic failure, and in need of support. Parental involvement is difficult because of language and cultural differences that may discourage parents. Teachers should get to know each student's cultural background and family circumstances.

Answer 136

The federal government didn't provide educational support to non-English speakers, but schools with high immigrant population created on-the-fly solutions. ELLs were given no instructional support in most schools and were expected to assimilate rapidly. ELLs dropped out of school at higher rates. Due to a high influx of immigrants in the 1880s, worries were raised that America might lose its identity. These concerns were made worse by the American experience in the two World Wars and insecurities caused by the Great Depression. Restrictions were placed on immigration during this period, an English speaking requirement was added to the naturalization process, and bilingual education programs were scaled back.

Answer 137

Instruction is begun primarily or entirely in the student's native language and then transition to greater use of English over time. Some programs continue instruction in both languages, targeting full biliteracy as a goal. Many benefits - literary skill in L1 facilitate literacy in L2. However, often not feasible as it requires a fairly homogenous L1 population, bilingual teachers, and a legal framework that allows for non-English instruction.

Answer 138

Provide English-only classroom instruction, with possible occasional use of a student's L1 in support. ESL programs include those that focus solely on developing English proficiency and those that focus on teaching ELLs academic content in ways that reinforce English language learning.

Answer 139

One of three main bilingual Language Instruction Education Programs (LIEP). Students typically enter a TBE program as soon as they start school and initially receive all or most of their instruction in L1. The goal is an early transition to the mainstream curriculum (typically after 2-3 years). Does not target L1 proficiency as a goal, and seldom teach literacy explicitly. L1 is used as a transition to L2. Students often experience difficulty transitioning and require additional support during their first years after exiting the TBE.

Answer 140

One of three main bilingual Language Instruction Education Programs (LIEP). Like TBE, DBE also starts with instruction in L1 and gradually transition to instruction in English. However, students never transition fully to English in DBE programs. Aims to develop biliteracy and maintain a students L1 proficiency.

Answer 141

One of the three main bilingual Language Instruction Education Programs (LIEP). All students (both ELLs and English speakers) are taught in both languages with the goal of full bilingualism for the entire school population. Some DI programs balance the two languages equally, beginning with the earliest grade, but it is more common for DI students to begin with a higher proportion (80/20 or 90/10) of instruction in the non-English language, and transition gradually to 50/50. In addition to the language benefit, DI programs are credited with promoting biculutralism and tolerance.

Answer 142

A type of Language Instruction Educational Program (LIEP) developed specifically for immigrants who enter the US between grades 6 and 12 and have experienced either interrupted schooling or no schooling in their home countries. The students often lack the basic literacy skills necessary to join their peers in content classroom.

Answer 143

A heritage language is a language spoken in a student's home or by his or her ancestors, which the student has a strong desire to learn or retain (mostly associated with Native American Languages). The teaching of HL became a public issue when Arizona passed Proposition 203 in 2000, limiting ESL instruction to full immerstion to last no longer than a year.

Answer 144

An ESL instruction model designed to transition ELLs to mainstream classrooms quickly (usually after one year) by emphasizing English-language instruction and omitting academic content instruction until students transition to mainstream classrooms. SEI teachers do not simply teach in English, but teach the rules and forms of English.

Answer 145

Language specialists pull ELLs out of the classroom for short, individual or group English language instruction. Lessons are often tailored to reinforce what the ELL is learning in the content classroom - may suffer social stigma, and its disruptive.

Answer 146

The language specialist joins the mainstream classroom in one of several ways. Lang. specialist and classroom teacher may co-teach, coordinating and dividing the curriculum. They might divide the classroom into ELLs and native speakers during some portion of the day and teach simultaneous lessons at different degrees of English proficiency. The ELL teacher functions as a resource for ELL students in need of assistance.

Answer 147

Prohibits Discrimination on the basis of race, color, or national origin in any program that receives funding from the federal government. In May 1970: DOE wrote a memo to school districts with high concentrations of Spanish-language students, warning them that a number of common educational practices denied these students their rights to an equal education = discriminatory policy in violation of the Civil Rights Act. The memo stated that A) districts must take steps to rectify the language deficiency when a lack of English ability excludes students from effective participation. B) Districts must not misclassify ELL students as having special needs; and C) ESL programs must be designed to achieve proficiency rather than simply lead to academic dead ends. The principles within the memorandum were endorsed as law by the Supreme Court in the 1971 case Lau vs. Nichols.

Answer 148

Actual name: Title VII of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) (President Lyndon B. Johnson - war on poverty) ESEA redefined the federal government's role in education, providing for dramatic increases in federal funding, as well as standards for equal access, educational achievement, and accountability. ESEA has been reauthorized ever since - 2001 NCLB and 2015 - ESSA The Bilingual Education Act provides federal funding for districts to develop bilingual programs but provided no guidelines. Did much to elevate ELLs rights as a concern separate from that of racial discrimination.

Answer 149

Lawsuit brought by Chinese students in San Francisco who argued that the fact that their classes were taught in English rather than Chinese violated their rights under the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment. Change after: schools receiving federal funding MUST provide English-language Instruction to students who lack English proficiency. Ruling based on the Civil Rights Act of 1965 - failure to grant Equal Access to educational opportunities. Schools now had to actively help students overcome language deficiencies.

Answer 150

Hold schools and students accountable to high standards. The act mandated that schools receiving Title 1 funding adopt annual standardized tests. Schools that failed to demonstrate adequate yearly progress on test results were required to create improvement plans and faced penalties. Established accountability and funding provisions for ELL programs separate from those allocated for the entire spectrum of socio-economically disadvantaged students. This separate attention raised the profile of ELL education issues - it also obliged states to monitor ELL academic performance more closely, and most developed uniform metrics of doing so. The NCLB required that states track three annual measurable achievement objectives (AMAO) - two that measured ELL English proficiency, and a third that measured ELL progress toward content standards.

Answer 151

Authority moved from federal government to the states. ESSA retains NCLB's framework of standardized testing and school accountability - but ESSA grants states more discretion in how to measure school success and how to address low-performing schools. ESSA incorporates a measure of ELL progress into the overall Title 1 measure of School Effectiveness, raising the potential that states and schools will make English-language education a stronger priority. ESSA also requires states to develop uniform standards for identifying, placing, and exiting students from ESL programs. ESSA also allows the content test results of ESL students in their first two years of schooling to be exempted from the reported results due to unrealistic pressure under NCLB.

Answer 152

Roy Castaneda - the father of two Mexican-American students, sued the school district of Raymondville, TX. He argued that his children had unlawfully been placed in a classroom segregated by language ability, and that the school had failed to establish a bilingual education program that would allow ELLs to re-enter the mainstream curriculum. The case effectively challenged the courts to enforce Lau v. Nichols. --> 1981 established Castaneda Test to assess whether district bilingual programs were meeting the standards of the right to equal education.

Answer 153

Children could not be denied education because of their immigration status. Background: Texas withheld funds to pay for the education of, and allowed districts to expel, students who lacked legal status. In 1982, the Supreme Court ruled that the texas law violated the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th amendment. Plyler v. Doe only applies to K-12 education.

Answer 154

The Florida Consent Decree. Consent decree = mutually binding agreement enforced by a court. In 1990, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) filed a suit claiming that Florida was failing to provide ELLs with equitable and comprehensible education under the existing framework of federal laws. The decree covers issues such as identification and assessment, equal access to programming, teacher qualifications and training, monitoring, and outcome measures, now serve as the framework for Florida's ESL programs.

Answer 155

BEA 1968 - part of Elementary and Secondaru Education Act (ESEA) --> replaced with NCLB in 2002 - struck all mentions of bilingualism and renamed it the English Language Acquisition, Language Enforcement and Academic Achievement Act. --> NCLB together with Proposition 227 in California and Proposition 203 in Arizona focused largely on assimilation. ESSA (Every Student Succeeds Act) promotes the benefits of bilingualism, thereby showing a shift in the public view of bilingualism.

Answer 156

Efforts to establish English as the only official language in the US. More than 20 states have ratified some form of English-only legislation. In Education - English as the only language in the classroom and during instruction. This sentiment led to the passage of several propositions banning bilingual education in the late 1990s and early 2000s, notably in Arizona, California, and Massachusetts.

Answer 157

Normal second language acquisition can resemble emergin special-ed issues. Only trained evaluators should make the assessment and be done in the student's native language.

Answer 158

The practice of placing students in separate academic tracks based on their academic performance at an early age. Closely related to ability grouping.

Answer 159

The separation of students into groups on the basis of their perceived ability to understand a topic - a long standing teaching practice. Appeals to the parents of high-performing students and to teachers because it allows them to give specific instruction to different groups, avoiding a lot of differentiation.

Answer 160

A) The challenge for teachers to recognize giftedness through the filter of another language and culture. B) A bias toward verbal aptitude in the definition and assessment of gifted students. C) The lack of appropriate cognitive testing in students' native language. D) A lack of systematic communication between school ESL and gifted programs. E) An unspoken sense that ESL learners must become proficient in English before their cognitive skills can be recognized. There's funding - Jacob Javits grants - but most funding comes from states, and is therefore disproportionately distributed.

Answer 161

1) Ensuring ELLs have fair access to school resources and programs. 2) Engaging the parents of ELLs to make sure they are aware of educational opportunities for their children, 3) helping educate peers who may not have received training in delivering content instruction to ELLs. 4) Correcting misperceptions at the school and the community about ELL aptitude and education.

Answer 162

Related: Psychological distance The degree to which individuals accept those that they perceive to be different from them (race, age, gender, religion, economic class, linguistic ability, or any other category of identity) Social distance is a form of prejudice - an unfavorable image formed without basis.

Answer 163

Explicitly teach about prejudice, stereotypes, and ethnocentrism. Establish and enforce clear classroom policies regarding tolerance and cultural sensitivity. Teachers can ask students to reflect about their own behavior and identify an occasion when they might have acted based on an unwarranted stereotype. Structure curriculum around multicultural themes or events. Adopt multicultural resources (books, films) Encourage students to consider minority viewpoints when discussing topics in history or current events.

Answer 164

Educator James Bank identified four different levels of commitment that schools take toward multicultural education. 1) First level - the Contributions approach. Schools simply add a few references to minority or female contributions to the existing curriculum - the "holidays and heroes approach" to multiculutralism. 2) SEcond level - the additive approach. Teachers incorporate numerous multicultural themes and concepts into the curriculum, but do so in a superficial way, teaching the perspective of the dominant majority. 3) Third level - The transformative approach: First-person, minority perspectives on key issues and uses teaching methods to investigate key issues from those points of view. 3) Fourth level - Decision-making or social action: encourage students to use what they learn about societal inequities to become agents of social change.

Answer 165

A type of social action that calls upon teachers in multicultural classrooms to be agents of change in addressing societal and institutional inequalities. Strive for equity - providing additional help to students disadvantaged by multiple factors outside the classroom. Paolo Friere focused on the potential of education to transform - literacy is an instrument of power and has served as a means of disadvantaging the poor. Teachers must help these students develop a critical approach to understanding their own treatment by society.

Answer 166

Best - openly discussing and celebrating cultural differences. Ensure that students with different cultures get to mix and work together (first with lots of teacher support, then without a lot of it). Open discussions when misunderstandings occur that reveal cultural expectations and understandings.

Answer 167

Activities that achieve a specific learning goal while engaging the students with a topic of a process that is interesting to them. Communicative Interactions points to the sociocultural aspect of language learning - students learn best when they are engaged in authentic communicative acts rather than simply listening to a lecture or practicing repetitive worksheet exercises. Make lessons meaningful by using authentic texts and realia (example - from their cultures) Promote CI by staging activities that draw students into conversations, such as small-group discussions, problem-solving tasks, skits, or dialogue journals. Ask open-ended questions.

Answer 168

Language usage = linguistic competence Language use = Communicative competence. <--- takes more time for learners to achieve. Widdowson said that sentences have significance in isolation, but value when they are considered in the context of a communicative act. His ideas influenced the communicative approaches to language learning, with their emphasis on authentic speech acts and the importance of pragmatic dimensions of communication.

Answer 169

Students whose L1 is grammatically very different from English will require more explicit instructions. They should also teach grammar implicitly. Some errors disappear without explicit correction; teachers should therefore carefully consider which mistakes to correct. Be more liberal in correcting written work, both because the affective consequences are fewer and because students need more explicit instruction when learning academic language.

Answer 170

Another word for teacher's aide - a supportive role to a certified teacher in a classroom. Takes care of the logistics of the classroom or a lesson, give individual attention to students who need it, manage a group of students when the class is divided, and help the classoom teacher with assessments. ESL-trained paraprofessionals are also used in content classrooms.

Answer 171

Online literacy is Deictic - ever changing.. Donald Leu - five functions critical to online literacy. 1) Identifying the problem - initiate online research by accurately formulating a question or a search phrase. 2) Know how to locate information online - skimming, choosing from search engine results. 3) Evaluate sources for reliability and bias. 4) Ability to synthesize information drawn from different sources. 5) Deploying a range of rhetorical skills to communicate the results in multiple new formats.

Answer 172

The use of computer technology to learn languages. Discussions - computer as a tutor, or as a tool for communicating with others. Most common tutoring applications - Pronunciation tutorials (listen to native speakers --> record their own speech) Reading tutorials (electronic glossaries provide definitions and draw connections between related texts that provide outlines and graphic organizers to assist in the Writing process) CALL can provide unique opportunities for self-guided learning, but requires motivated students. Another advantage - can be used anywhere, anytime, and can provide grading and feedback functions.

Answer 173

The use of computers as a communication tool - can be synchronous or asynchronous.

Answer 174

Greatest advantage of technology in the classroom. Differentiate by content and degree of difficulty, as well as the scaffolding provided. Allows students to repeat outside of class. Can also be used to differentiate assessments.

Answer 175

Corpus/Corpora - collection of texts gathered by linguists for purposes of research. Search and analyze textual data for insights into language use. Used to Compile dictionaries, and to juxtapose prescriptive and descriptive grammars. Concordance - a list of the ways in which a word is used in context. Very useful for an ESL student.

Answer 176

A) Networking with more experienced ESL teachers B) ESL conferences C) Professional journals and websites of informational clearinghouses such as the Center for Applied Linguistics or the Centre for Educational Research on Languages and Literacy D) Summer Workshops. E) Do own research for publication.

Answer 177

A) TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) B) CAL (Center for Applied Linguistics) C) ACTFL (American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Language) D) NCELA (National Clearinghouse for English Language Acquisition E) NABE (National Association for Bilingual Education

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