Foundations of Language Learning Flashcards
Describe B.F. Skinner’s Behaviorist Theory of First-Language acquisition
Behaviorist theories propose that humans learn a language through a process of reinforcement.
Stimulus is used to produce a spoken response in a child, often a repetition of what’s said. The feedback can be negative or positive - operant conditioning - a change in behavior in response to the feedback.
Through this back-and-forth inductive process, children learn the rules and patterns of language.
Critics of Skinner’s behaviorist theory say…
Language is not just input-output. Children often produce new, complex utterances they never heard, and similarly make grammatical mistakes that they might not have heard (go –> goed: applying -ed to simple past because that’s the common rule).
Describe Noam Chomsky’s universal grammar theory
Humans are born with innate language abilities, which include general grammatical categories and constraints that can be adapted and activated as the child is exposed to the surrounding language. Chomsky gave it the name “language activation device” - a hypothetical region of the brain devoted to language acquisition and production.
The theory was developed in response to the behaviorist theory (language is built through trial-and-error)
Describe the Cognitive Constructionist model of First-Language Acquisition
Theory developed by Jean Piaget.
Learning occurs when a child’s experiences challenges his or her current understanding of the world –> new, more complex cognitive/linguistic development. Adaptation to environment.
Model of L1 acquisition. Cognitive development occurs in universal, identifiable stages.
Critics argue that the stages cannot be empirically identified, and the theory doesn’t account for culture or social interactions on language development.
Social Constructivism Theory of First-Language Acquisition
Theory developed by Lev Vygotsky.
Emphasizes the importance of social interactions in language theory. Children learn primarily from adults (“more experienced others”) who model new language patterns and also correct errors.
Coined the term “zone of proximal development” - learning occurs when children are presented with tasks or challenges that can be solved with the help of others, but not alone. The tasks the child can accomplish with help of others or scaffolding falls into the zone of proximal development.
What is Discovery Learning Theory?
Theory developed by Jerome Bruner.
Students learn best when they construct their own knowledge through a process of inquiry, investigation, and problem-solving. Influential theory in the modern movement away from lecture-based teaching and toward methods that guide students in various inquiry-based activities.
How is Discovery Learning Theory and the Cognitive Constructionist model similar and different?
Similarities: Children learn in different ways as they develop, moving from physical manipulation of objects to the creation of mental images to the use of language. They both emphasize the active role of the learner in building understanding through successively more complex engagements with the world.
Differences: unlike Piaget, Bruner believed that the stages are continuous and that children could speed up their development.
What is the critical period hypothesis? What do critics say?
The theory argues that there is an optimal age for learning a language, and that the ability declines over time.
Language learning depends on brain plasticity - in humans, it’s optimal between the age of two until puberty.
For L2 learners - the theory argues that adults rarely achieve full fluency in a second language learned later in life; failing to master complex grammatical structures or achieve a native accent. Critics argue that some adults to achieve full mastery. They also point out that factors other than brain development could explain the difference in L2 learning, as adults and children learn in different motivational social contexts.
What is the connectionist theories of language acquisition?
Attempts to apply insight from neuroscience and computer science to explain language acquisition. Look at how neurons function in order to explain how learning occurs.
Example: the more frequently a given set of neurons fires in tandem, the more established that neuron network becomes - a feature that helps explain memory (can be seen when learners associate words with objects, concepts, or events).
What is the emergentist theory of language acquisition?
Suggests that children learn language by using a simple but adaptable set of neural networks to process and understand the complex linguistic environments they are immersed in.
Differs from Chomsky’s theory (language is innate and universal) - it suggests that children are born with a pattern extraction ability that is effectuated by the growth and strengthening of neural networks. Social interaction is critical for language acquisition, but differs in its focus on the brain’s ability to find patterns.. The brain narrows the field of possible meanings through the use of contextual, phonological, and morphological cues.
What is the competition model of language acquisition?
Brian MacWhinney and Elizabeth Bates - argues that there is no fundamental difference in how people acquire an L1 or L2 - various cognitive processes compete to offer the best interpretation of language cues offered to the learner by the language environment. The cognitive process that makes the best interpretations of the language - successful interaction and speech acts - are reinforced as neural networks.
Describe the 5 steps in the Model of Language Acquisition?
An approximate timeline for both L1 and L2 learning.
- Pre-speech stage (0-6 months) - babies may produce what are called comfort signs (grunts and sighs) while paying attention to spoken language and beginning to distinguish phonemes.
- Babbling stage (6-8 months): babies begin to babble, produce rhythmic sounds with syllable-like stops, often with repeated patterns. Practices essential motor skills and allows infants to learn how to produce basic sounds.
- One-word stage (10-18 months) - children produce their first words, usually in reference to people, objects, or actions that produce desired outcomes. Overextension and underextension (using words too broadly or too narrowly) are common.
- Two-word or telegraphic stage (18-24 months) - children produce two word phrases using lexical rather than functional or grammatical morphemes.
- Multiword stage (30 months) - children speak in complete sentences, adding functional and grammatical elements, though often making errors.
What is a Holophrase?
A single word used to express a complex thought. For example “up” used by a toddler to say “Pick me up”
Suggests that children understands more language than they can produce.
What is the Comprehension-Based Approach to Second-Language Learning?
Students build receptive skills (listening and reading) before production skills. Listening is perceived as the most important and less stressful skill.
What is the silent period?
Connected to Comprehension-based Approach to Second-language learning: an early silent period in students’ learning is expected; they listen to meaningful speech.
What are the Communicative Approaches to Second-Language learning?
Focuses on providing students genuine, meaningful, experience-based interactions in the target language. Teachers spend little time talking, teaching grammar, and focus instead on target-language. Collaborative work. All 4 skills are integrated from the beginning. It’s part of constructivist theory = acquire knowledge by constructing it in meaningful experience (reality-based) Most common approach in the modern classroom.
What is the grammar-translation method?
Relies on explanations in the students’ native language on the grammatical structures of the target language. Students read complicated texts and translate sentences from L2 to L1. Based on how Latin was traditionally taught; focus on verb declensions.
What is the audio-lingual method?
Relies heavily on repetition and drills, with language skills built systematically from simple to complex structures. Accurate pronunciation and minimization of errors. Speaking exercises are designed to control the vocabulary and grammar structures in use rather than to reflect real-world communication.
What is ‘the silent way classroom’?
Teachers speech is minimized: teachers model an expression and uses a series of props to help students learn basic structures
What does Suggestopedia refer to?
A method to teach language patterns: relies on music and rhythm to reinforce language patterns. Students are given scripts with L2 to read aloud with games and music. They might elaborate on the script with their own inventions or compare it to L1 before moving on to another script.
What is the Total Physical Response Method?
Teacher begin by giving elementary commands in L2 (“stand up!”). As students progress, the commands become more complex. Eventually the students give each other commands.
What is Krashen’s Monitor Hypothesis?
Once learners have learned specific rules in a language can use them to monitor and correct their language use. Takes time and conscious attention, and is more feasible when writing than speaking.
What is Krashen’s Acquisition/Learning Hypothesis?
Language acquisition is an unconscious, natural process that occurs when a learner uses the language for a variety of real-life purposes and interact at extent with native speakers. Language learning is a conscious process (study parts of a language). He argues that acquisition only leads to fluency. Language immersion.
What is Krashen’s Natural Order Theory?
Aspects of language is acquired in a natural order: certain grammatical structures are acquired early (such as -ing before 3rd person -s to regular verbs). One’s first language influences the order in which elements of an L2 is acquired.
What is Krashen’s affective filter hypothesis?
Students learn most effectively in low-stress learning environments. Affective factors are for example boredom and anxiety. Affective filters interfere with the learning process. Students should not be forced to speak until they feel comfortable doing so. Adults are more likely to develop affective filters than children.
What is Michael Long’s interaction hypothesis?
Similar to Krashen’s input hypothesis. Emphasizes the importance of comprehensible input, and adds an emphasis on conversational interaction. Negotiate meaning to be understood (paraphrasing, restating, asking for clarification, using context clues, etc.) Best if students are speaking to same level peers.
What are cognitive strategies in Second-Language acquisition?
Students employ them to understand a task at hand and include activities as memorizing, categorizing, summarizing, generalizing, deducing, and using inductive reasoning. More cognitive strategies = more successful in learning an L2.
What are metacognitive strategies?
Refers to strategies that students use to improve their own learning process. Planning, self-monitoring, prioritizing, and setting goals. Highly correlated with student success.
What is Robert de Keyser’s Skill Acquisition Theory?
Individuals learn by gradually transforming declarative knowledge into procedural knowledge. Learn about a concept (declarative) through observation, and will progress into procedural knowledge (mirrors acquired language and learned language). Goal is to make students work more autonomously.
What are the 5 stages in the Model of L2-Acquisition?
Predictable learning stages –> will help ESL teachers design appropriate learning activities.
- Silent period/Preproduction period - ELL is uncomfortable speaking. knows about 500 words. Build receptive skills to gain confidence.
- Private speech (early production stage) - ELL creates one- or two-word phrases using 1,000 words. Teachers should pose questions that allow abbreviated answers and scaffold their instruction.
- Lexical Chunks (speech emergent stage) - ELL uses 3,000 words to form short phrases and sentences with frequent grammatical errors. Short conversations with peers, read beginning stories.
- Formulaic speech (intermediate language proficiency) - ELL uses 6,000 words to make complex sentences, state opinions, and share thoughts. Can study content subjects in English. Teachers can shift the instructional focus to writing.
- Experimental or simplified speech (advanced language proficiency) - the learner approaches fluency and can make generalizations about grammar and semantics. The learner may exit the ESL program but continue to receive assistance with writing and in the content areas.
What are the differences in acquiring an L1 and L2?
Conscious vs. unconscious effort.
Context: Naturally integrated in parts of daily life vs. primarily learned in classroom environment.
Universal grammar vs. affected by L1 grammar.
Doesn’t require instruction vs. Requires instruction.
Needed to function in life and satisfy desires vs. varied motivation
Cognitive load and affective filters are less important vs. These factors are central to the rate of progress.
What is sequential Bilingualism?
Occurs when a child obtains fluency in an L2 after the L1 is established (usually around the age of 3.)
What is Simultaneous bilingualism?
The child is raised in a bilingual environment from birth or before the age of 3.
What is the limited capacity hypothesis?
States that children who are exposed to several languages will have delayed speech and incomplete proficiency. Recent research has overturned this hypothesis.
What is code-switching?
Speakers switch from one language to another in the same conversation, often in the same sentence. Very common among spanish-english speakers.
What is the reason for code-switching?
Speakers are unable to think of a word in the language they are speaking, so they resort to their L1. May also signal solidarity with other bilingual speakers, or to convey figures of speech not available in the other language. Code-switching also occurs in different contexts where either the L1 or L2 is preferred.
Code-switching can also occur within a language when a speaker switches dialects.
What is interlanguage?
A version of a learned language produced at any given moment by a language learner. It contains elements and structures of both L1 and L2, but may differ from one another. Considered to be a strategy used to compensate for limited proficiency in the L2. Normal, but risks becoming fossilized if a learner lacks the motivation to improve upon it. Fossilization often occurs when a learner achieves a level of proficiency that allows for effective but limited communication.
What cognitive tendencies contribute to the formation of an interlanguage?
- Language transfers - when a learner applies knowledge of rules from L1 to L2. Can be positive and negative, such as when the learner relies of false cognates.
- Overgeneralization - learner extends a language rule beyond its actual scope, such as adding -ed to create past tense, resulting in errors like “swimmed”
3.
What is Contrastive Analysis?
The study of differences and similarities between languages. Teachers can use it to anticipate language transfer issues.
What are language universals?
A characteristic that is shared by all the world’s languages.
Absolute universals - all languages have them, like syllables, consonants, and vowels)
Non-Absolute universals - features that are found in a high degree or statistical regularity but also have exceptions.
Implicational universals - language properties that occur together - “If a language has A, then it will have B.”
What is the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) and Separate Underlying Proficiency (SUP) Theories?
Bilinguals or emerging bilinguals will draw on a common pool of cognates and linguistic abilities to speak either language. The L1 abilities will facilitate L2 learning. “Dual Iceberg Model”
SUP states that languages are separate systems and stored in different parts of the brain, so no positive transfer is available.
What are Rebecca Oxford’s Strategies Inventory for Language Learning? Name the 7 strategies.
- Memorization strategies - remember and retrieve information. Repetition and formulaic expressions are examples.
- Cognitive strategies - Analyzing or drawing conclusions, allows students to manipulate the target language.
- Elaboration - Connecting information to what is already known.
- Compensation strategies - lacks vocabulary - code-switching.
- Metacognitive strategies - used by students to improve their own learning habits - self-monitoring, planning.
- Affective strategies - control one’s own emotions. Requests for clarification might be examples as students seek reassurance or reinforcement of what they already know.
- Social strategies - employ language in a social setting. Role-playing.
What is the purpose of the Strategic Inventory for Language Learning (SILL)?
To identify the learning strategies used by foreign language students. Used both for research purposes and to give individual learners insight into their own learning profile.
What is the Cognitive Academic Learning Approach (CALLA)?
An approach meant to help ELLs with English proficiency transition into the general classroom, usually in secondary school. Emphasizes cognitive and metacognitive approaches to learning by explicitly teaching learning strategies and encouraging students to plan and evaluate their undertakings (cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, and social/affective strategies)
What does CALLA and CALP share?
A focus on helping ELLs who are likely proficient in social English (BICS) gain proficiency in Academic English in order for the transition into general education to happen.
How does learning styles affect language development?
Students vary in their preference for visual, auditory, kinesthetic (movement), or tactile (touch) learning. Research shows that it’s better to incorporate these styles depending on task, rather than on individual students. Provide a variety of ways to learn.
What are Lois Meyer’s Four Barriers (Four loads which inhibits learning)?
- Cognitive load - the extent to which students are unfamiliar or haven’t practiced concepts/content.
- Cultural load - the untaught, assumed cultural preferences.
- Language load - the extent to which the lesson language is unfamiliar and stretches beyond the comprehensible input.
- Learning load - the extent to which the learning activity is unfamiliar or causes stress (like a debate if it hasn’t been practiced before).
What is the theory of multiple intelligences?
A broadened definition of intelligence which includes eight forms of intelligence. They reflect different cognitive processes in the brain: visual/spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, musical, intrapersonal, interpersonal, linguistic, logical/mathematical, and naturalistic.
Why are ELLs sometimes misdiagnosed with a disability?
Many of the characteristics manifest during normal L2 learning process resembles those of native-speakers with disabilities, leading to frequent misdiagnoses. Learning disabilities rarely manifest in only one language - however, if an L2 learner performs below average in writing and excels in speaking, a disability is likely.
What is the difference between instrumental motivation, integrative motivation, intrinsic motivation, and extrinsic motivation?
Instrumental motivation - learning the L2 is a tool to achieve a specific goal (job, college). They have integrative motivation if they have a positive view of their future L2 community and wish to join it.
Extrinsic motivation refers to focus on rewards or punishment (perform well or badly on a test).
Intrinsic motivation refers to having no concern for reward or punishment, but they want to do something for the sake of it.
Research show that intrinsic and integrative motivation and more reliable and durable.
What are Bloom’s three learning domains?
The Cognitive domain (thinking), the sensory domain (doing), and the affective domain (feeling).
Explain Bloom’s taxonomy of concepts
Bloom’s Taxonomy is a hierarchical ordering of cognitive skills that can help teachers and students in the classroom. Remembering, understand, apply, analyze, evaluate, and create (produce new or orginal work).
Explain the five stages in Bloom’s affective domain.
Five processes that lead to student growth: Receiving (passive condition),
Responding (attentive to learning and responds with positive emotion),
Valuing (develops preferences and commitments)
Organization (develops a value system, combining elements to create a logial relational framework)
Characterizing (internalizes what’s been learned and acts in principled ways according to this knowledge)
Zoltan Dornyei’s L2 Motivational Self-System
Students draw on different sources of motivation.
1. The ideal L2 self - the image the learner has of the person they want to become through the process of language learning.
2. The ought-to L2 self - an image driven by a sense of obligation, one imposed by others’ expectations.
3. The L2 learning experience - captures situational motivations, the types that arise daily in the classroom.
Teachers should find ways to appeal to a student’s ideal L2 self in order to ensure persistent and consistent motivation.
First they must create the basic motivating conditions in the classroom.
Second, they must generate initial, individualized motivation.
3. They must protect that motivation.
4. Positive assessmesment is necessary for sustained motivation, teachers must encourage students to self-monitor.
What is self-efficacy?
The perception people have about their competence.
What is the Attribution theory?
The concept of self-efficacy is used to analyze what students believe is the cause of their success or failure on an academic task. Students tend to attribute academic outcomes on of the four general causes: Ability, Effort, Perceived difficulty, or luck. Students with low self-efficacy attribute academic outcomes to external causes (difficulty; luck). They’re less likely to respond constructively to academic setbacks. Students with High Self-efficacy tend to attribute outcomes to internal causes and are likely to respond to setbacks by working harder.
Students perform best when they focus on what they can control and when they believe they can influence the outcome.
What does self-esteem refer to?
An attitude of approval or disapproval toward oneself. Three types: general or global self-esteem (broad sense of self worth), situational self-esteem (specific to a certain domain), and task self-esteem (in the context of performing specific tasks or activities).
Global self-esteem changes little over time. High self-esteem is linked to better academic results. Conversely, good academic has shown to be important in building situational self-esteem.
Learning an L2 - students often experience a gap between what they can express and what they think or feel. A large gap between their genuine self and the self they communicate.
What considerations should be taken when it comes to student anxiety?
Identify when and why there’s an abnormal sense of apprehension. 1) ability to communicate in L2, 2) anxiety that peers will view one’s L2 communication in negative terms, and 3) anxiety about evaluations and grades.
Anxiety can sometimes lead to greater focus, greater effort, or a sense of competitiveness that can drive a student to mastery.
What does Inhibition refer to?
The inner impediment to free expression or action, often perceived as a defense mechanism due to low self-esteem.
It’s a critical concept in learning because of the importance of performance to language learning. Learning requires risk-taking and the willingness to make mistakes.
What does language ego refer to?
The perceived identity often related to one’s L1 = the “original identity” and closely tied to L1 competence. It’s challenged by the attempt to learn an L2. The idea can explain why children learn languages more readily than adults as their egos are less full-formed and less rigid. Don’t suffer the embarrassment of making mistakes.
What is Acculturation?
The adaptation of one person or group to the culture of another. If the adaptation is complete, it’s referred to as assimilation. The acculturation model argues that a person’s success in an L2 is directly related to the person’s acculturation into the L2 culture.
What is assimilation?
The completion of the acculturation process - the minority group resembles the majority group.
What is transculturation?
Two equally dominant cultures mixing and adopting each other’s elements (rare).
What is elective bilingualism?
Individuals who choose to study a second language, often for reasons of personal gain. Linguist Guadalupe Valdes argud that Elective learners usually learn the L2 in an artifical environment, such as a classroom. L1 will always remain dominant.
What is circumstantial bilingualism?
Forced to speak a second language. For example after immigrating. Learn new language in order to survive and succeed. Achieves greater mastery than elective bilingualism.
Political factors in ESL programs
Educational policies at various levels influence the ways in which ESL programs are structured and administered in schools.
Institutional factors in ESL programs
Different approaches: ESL students are integrated into the broader student community. Schools that celebrate diversity and promote the integration of different lang. communities achieve better language outcomes. If the value of ESL students cultures is recognized, they are more likely to embrace a new culture. Engagement with parents and the community.
The impact of poverty on student performance
Low-income students often lag behind their peers in cognitive abilities, experience emotional deficits, and ongoing stress –> reduces ability to learn. About 50% of ELLs come from low-income families.
Describe what’s used to have ESL meet ELA Standards
The Common Core State Standards hold ELLs to the same standards of ELA proficiency, while recognizing that they might need more time and support. WIDA developed ENglish Language Development (ELD) Frameworks to give teachers and parents a guide to how ELLS could meet the ELA standards.
Scales of ENG prof - WIDA (from entering to bridging) - the framework then elaborate benchmarks (standards) by grade and proficiency level. Can be used by teachers to plan, and for instruction delivery in classrooms with different proficiency levels.
How can teachers use Formative assessment?
Teachers achieve the best outcomes when they utilize frequent, varied, and non-intrusive assessments that address clear learning objectives and transparent state standards. Especially important in ESL due to language disadvantages and being held to the same standards. Teachers use form. ass. to identify what needs to be taught (or re-taught) and how.
Teachers should use form ass. prior to starting an instructional unit in order to gauge student knowledge and needs; during instruction to check for understanding, identify needed lesson modifications, and detect students in need of help. Also used after instruction to ensure student comprehension with an eye toward modifying subsequent instruction
What is the Matthew Effect?
Students who learn to read well and early experience wid and growing educational advantages over their peers. In the aggregate, students don’t overcome early reading lags later in their schooling, rather, the deficits and the consequences magnify over time. This research underscores the importance of early phonetic instruction and interventions for students at risk.
What is balanced literacy?
Means combining phonics instruction with whole language approaches (students are taught in the context of actual reading and writing). Also refers to a combined word work (phon. and voc.) with a reading and writing process. –> Teacher read aloud–>shared reading–>one-on-one help to individ. or small groups reading. Writing should be interactive - writing in small groups or individual.
What is a Language-Rich Classroom?
Students are continuously exposed to the language in many different forms (word walls; written work by students; label objects with various names or descriptive terms), access to appropriate level reading materials,
What is a Schema?
The background knowledge someone has about a certain topic; information, associations, remembered life experiences, or even emotional responses. Background knowledge is essential to reading comprehension, as written texts rely on implied meanings and a reader’s background knowledge.
Teachers can help activate student knowledge by posing questions that help students relate the text to what they already know or that prompt them to involve their own experiences. Also raises students’ confidence. by demonstrating they have relevant experience.
What is an example of a Comprehensive Reading Program?
A balanced reading curriculum –> incorporating a range of activities and reading skills: Phonemic awareness, phonics (sounds and written representation), fluency, vocabulary development, and comprehension. These skills are not enough individually - reading well is a multi-faceted skill that requires attention to context and the ways in which successful communications are structured. Activities can be phonics activities to shared and guided reading, cloze activities (a reading comp. act. where you remove words from a page and let the students guess which words based on context), and teacher prompts that require students to draw connections between texts or search for implied meanings.
How can literacy activities be meaningful and purposeful? (VS. Decontextualized language)
By engaging students in something beyond the text, such as subject matter taught in a content classroom, or it might appeal to their interests. The text might have the student follow instructions to create a project, or follow up a reading passage with a small-group or peer-to-peer discussion.
What is Decontextualized language? (VS. Purposeful activities)
Langauge that is unfamiliar to a student, offers few context clues. Reading and understanding decontextualized language is important for Academic language fluency, but it’s less appropriate for early learners. However, it’s necessary that students are invited to generalize and abstract texts rather than engage only with concrete and immediate things.
What is the Language Experience Approach (LEA)?
Key feature: Literacy development through the creation of a class-specific text based on a shared student experience (a field trip, for example). Teacher writes the first draft of the text, using student sentences and contributions, which can then be read for practice. The class revisits the text over time and add new vocabulary, new syntax, and expanding the text to relate to new educational experiences. The text serves as a basis for both reading and writing instruction.
How can teachers create motivation to read?
Create intrinsic motivation –> Find books that are relevant to students interests, contemporary events, to their different cultures.
Pre-reading activities -> activate background knowledge.
Element of ownership -> Let students choose the book to read, when to read, or how they will assessed on their reading.
Choosing level-appropriate books is critical in order to maintain interest.
Make sure students are exposed to reading role models - parents, celebrities, or the teacher.
