Forensic Psychology Flashcards
1
Q
Offender Profiling
A
An intestigative technique by which we identify the major personality and behavioural characteristics of the offender based upon an analysis of the crimes committed
2
Q
Top Down Approach
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Uses the experience and intuition of a profilier, starts with pre-existing categories and goes to evidence.
- contains 7 decision-making tools
3
Q
7 Decision-Making Tools in Top Down Approach
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- Murder Type
- Primary Intent
- Victim Risk
- Offender Risk
- Escalation
- Time
- Location
4
Q
Murder Type
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- Isolated (a one-off)
- Serial (3+ in at least a month with gaps in between)
- Mass (several in one location at one time)
- Spree (several in different locations but at one time)
5
Q
Primary Intent
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Whether the murder was premeditated or not
6
Q
Victim Risk
A
Was the victim high or low risk to the offender (vulnerability)
7
Q
Offender Risk
A
Is there a high or low risk to the offender?
8
Q
Escalation
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Is there evidence that the crime has escalated from previous offences
9
Q
Time
A
When was the crime committed?
10
Q
Location
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Where was the crime committed?
11
Q
Organised Behaviour
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- planned the crime
- high self control
- leaves little evidence
- deliberately targets victim/type of victim
12
Q
Organised Profile
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- highly intelligent
- skilled/professional occupation
- socially & sexually competent
- usually married/living with partner
- often eldest child/highest birth order)
13
Q
Disorganised Behaviour
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- little to no planning for the crime
- little self control
- leaves lots of evidence
- victim is often random
14
Q
Disorganised Profile
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- below average intelligence
- unskilled jobs/unemployed
- socially & sexually inadequate
- often lives alone or with parents
- lower birth order (youngest)
15
Q
4 Main stages to contruction of an FBI profile
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Data Assimilation
Crime Scene Classification
Crime Reconstruction
Profile Generation
16
Q
Bottom Up Approach
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Analyses evidence in comparison to evidence from previous crimes
- investigative psychology
- geographical profiling
17
Q
Investigative Psychology
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Use of statistical techniques alongside theory to analyse crim e scenes and establish patterns of behaviour
- uses 5 basic assumptions to help establish a profile
18
Q
5 Investigative Psychology Assumptions
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- Interpersonal Coherence
- Time & Place
- Criminal Characteristics
- Criminal Career
- Forensic Awareness
19
Q
Interpersonal Coherence
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Assumption that behaviour is consistent across situations and everyday behaviour is similar to the way a crime is commited
20
Q
Time & Place
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Positioning and timing of crimes give an indication as to where the perpetrator might live or work
21
Q
Criminal Characteristics
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Placing criminals into categories e.g. types of offences
22
Q
Criminal Career
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Considers how far into their criminal experience offenders are, and how their pattern of crime might progress
23
Q
Forensic Awareness
A
Offenders who show an awareness of forensic investigation
24
Q
Geographical Profiling
A
Generalising from the location of the crime-scenes to the likely home base of the offender, through crime-mapping
- based on the assumption that most offenders like to operate in areas they know well
- 4 main principles to help shape a profile
25
4 Principles in Geographical Profiling
- Locatedness
- Systematic Crime Location Choice
- Centrality
- Comparative Case Analysis
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Locatedness
Some crimes have several locations whihc include where the victim is met initially, where the attack occus, where the victim is actually killed and finally where the body is disposed of
27
Systematic Crime Location Choice
Non-random locations where familiarity to the offender is importrant
28
Centrality
Two types of offenders: commuters & marauders.
- Communters travel to commit the crime
- Marauders commit crimes close to home
29
Comparative Case Analysis
Consideration that other crimes may be committed by the same offender.
- The reason why this connection is actively sought is that the more crimes that are committed by one particular person, the greater the accuracy and application of geographical profiling
30
Atavistic Form/Historical Approach
Proposed by Lombroso in 1870s
- Focused on the physical makeup of offenders
- Argued offenders were a biologically distinct group with primitive physical characteristics
31
Christiansen (1977)
studied 3586 twin pairs from denmark & found cc rates of 35% for mz & 13% for dz MALE TWINS
32
Adoption Studies
Compare adopted children to biological and adopted parents to see whether the environment or genes have an effect
33
Mednick et al (1990)
USed data form an adoption data bank in denmark compared conviction rates
- found 20% of adoptees whos bio parents had conviction & adop. parents didnt
- found 13.5% of adoptees who had convictions but whos birth & adop. parents did not
34
Neural Explanations
Neural differences have been found between the brains of criminals and non-criminals: biochemistry & brain physiology
35
Serotonin
Regulates mood & impulse control (impulsive aggression)
- low levels implicated with failure to control impulsive aggression & may lead to violent offending
35
Dopamine
Linked to pleasure
- high levels in limbic system from substance abuse leads to increased pleasure, leading to addiction
- there's a positive correlation between addiction & offending
36
Limbic System
Reduced activity in the limbic system may be linked to a lack of emotional control which would be linked to offending due to a lack of remorse
- people with APD have lowered activity in the limbic system
36
Noradrenaline
Helps us respond to a threatening situation (f/f)
- high levels are associated with aggression & thus violent crime
36
Brain Physiology
Much evidence for the link between brain physiology & offending has come from people diagnosed with Antisocial Personality Disorder (APD).
- APD is associated with reduced emotional responses & lack of empathy for feelings of others
LIMBIC SYSTEM & PREFRONTAL CORTEX
36
Eysenck's Theory
Suggests that crime arises from certain innate personality traits.
Our personality is determined by the type of nervous system we inherit & varies across 2 dimensions: INTROVERT/EXTROVERT & NEUROTIC/STABLE (& PSYCHOTICISM/SOCIALIBILTY)
37
Prefrontal Cortex
Reduced activity and/or reduced grey matter in prefrontal cortex may be linked to a lack of regulation of emotional behaviour.
- may be linked to a lack of guilt or conscience and thus may lead to offending as this usually acts as a 'brake' stopping offending yet it isn't present in those with APD
37
Criminal Type
Neurotic-Extravert who also scored highly on Psychoticism
38
Extraversion
- Sociable, impulsive, expressive & risk-takers
- Seek stimulation/excitement from environment
- Have under-aroused nervous systems, linked to the level of cortical arousal in the brain. So person will seek stimulation from the environment to raise the level so are more likely to engage in risk taking behaviours ---> offending
- Do not condition easily so don't learn from their mistakes
LOW RESIDUAL LEVEL OF ACTIVATION > SEEK STIMULATION > MORE LIKELY TO RISK-TAKE > MORE LIKELY TO OFFEND
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Neuroticism
- Emotionally unstable, anxious & unpredictable
- Linked to the Sympathetic Nervous System
- React quickly & more to stress and becoeme unstable. behaving unpredictably
- More likely to commmit crimes in emotionally charged situations
40
Psychoticism
- Cold, uncaring, lack empathy, weak conscience (little guilt felt), and aggressive
- High levels of androgens (like testosterone) may be implicated which are linked to aggression & may lead to aggressive crime as they feel little guilt
41
EPI
Eysenck's Personality Inventory
- Total numbner of Y/N answers to certain questions reveal s and E & N score that can be plotted in 2 dimensions
42
Morals
Own personal judgement of right & wrong
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Ethics
Society's judgement of right & wrong
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Level of Moral Reasoning
Kohlberg suggested a stage theory of moral development where some individuals didn't progress past certain levels, making them more likely to commit a crime
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3 Levels of Moral Reasoning
Pre-conventional Morality
Conventional Morality
Post-conventional Morality
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Pre-conventional Morality
Consideration of the self (early childhood)
Includes:
1. Punishment Stage
2. Reward Stage
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Conventional Morality
Consideration of society (late childhood/adolescents)
Includes:
3. Good-boy/girl Stage
4. Law-and-order Stage
48
Post-conventional Morality
Own Mind (late adolescence to adulthood)
Includes:
5. Social Contract Stage
6. Ethical Principle Stage
49
1. Punishment Stage
If there isn't a definite punishment, the crime is more likely to occur
(don't think they're going to get punished = more likely to commit crime)
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2. Reward Stage
If there a good potential gains from committing the crime, the crime is more likely to occur
(reward for committing = higher likelihood, e.g. money/resources/emotional gain/social reward)
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3. Good-boy/girl Stage
Considers the thoughts of others. If closest people have positive attitudes towards the crime, it's more likely to occur
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4. Law-and-order Stage
Obedience to the law. Less likely to commit crime due to legality
53
5. Social Contract Stage
Adheres to the law but may commit a crime in certain circumstances, where they feel the law shouldn't apply. (morals "trump" the law)
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6. Ethical Principle Stage
Individual has their own moral code and may commit a crime if they feel the law is unjust
55
Cognitive Disortions
Errors or biases in people's informational processing system characterised by faulty processing
HOSTILE ATTRIBUTION BIAS & MINIMISATION
56
Hostile Attribution Bias
SPEILBERGER (1988) found a relationship between hiostile attribution bias and aggression.
This occurs due to cues from other people's behaviour being misinterprested as hostie, which then leads to a histile response and, if the situation calls for it, an aggressive & possibly illegal act
57
Minimisation
The downplaying of criminal behaviour by the offender (self-deception), where the offender doessn't accept the full reality of the situation and will attempt to rationalise what they have done
- They will often cast the blame toi the victim in order to feel less guilt, which may lead to more crimes committed - finding comfort in lies rather than being hurt by their own actions
58
Sutherland (1939)
Offending behaviour is learnt in the same way as other behaviour, through associations.
- An individual's norms & values are learnt through the significant others that they associate with
- IF A PERSON IS EXPOSED TO MORE PRO-CRIMINAL ATTITUDES, THEY WILL BE MORE LIKELY TO OFFEND
59
Benefits of Committing Crime
- Financial Gain (substances/resources/money/drugs)
- Emotional Gain (revenge)
- Social Benefit (respect)
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Benefits of Not Committing Crime
- Don't feel guilt
- Have freedon (no punishment like prison)
- Live judgement-free (no criminal record, so will have an easier life)
61
Reoffending
The response of significant others to the offending behaviour is crucial.
If they show respect & support, then offending is likely to occur
62
Psychodynamic Explanation
Researchers have applied Freud's work into crime settings
63
Inadequate Superego
Offending behaviour can be explained by an imbalance between the three components of the personality as the ID isn't sufficitently controlled
BLACKBURN (1993): WEAK SUPEREGO/DEVIANT SUPEREGO/OVER-HARSH SUPEREGO
64
Weak Superego
When there's an absense of a same-sex parent in the phalic stage, the child has no opportunity for identification, so cannot internalise a fully formed superego
- superego will not sufficiently control the id (which acts for selfish needs) and therefore not think of consequences
- lack of guilt , so won't think of how actions effect others
65
Deviant Superego
The same sex parent is present but they have immoral/deviant Superego which is internalised
- less likely to believe certain things are wrong & asre likely to act immorally
66
Over-Harsh Superego
Over-harsh parenting from same-sex parent may lead to internalisation of an over-harsh superego which has excessive punishment & is demanding of guilt
- VERY STRICT SUPERGO
- Unconsciously drive the individual to commit crimes to satisfy the superego's demand for punishment and guilt
67
Maternal Deprivation Hypothesis
Says that children who are deprived of a continuous, loving relationship with their mother in the first 2/3 years of infancy will suffer damaging and irreversible consequences in later life.
DELINQUENCY / AFFECTIONLESS PSYCHOPATHY / INTELLECTUAL RETARDATION
68
Delinquency
Someone who breaks social norms. As many social norms are laws, they're more likely to commit crimes and become an offender
69
Affectionless Psychopathy
Lack of guilt & empathy. No guilt & empathy means there's an absense of the barriers stopping someone from committing a crime, so increases the likelihood of offending
70
Intellectual (Mental) Retardation
- Low IQ, negative environmental factors (e.g. unemployed/poverty) are associated with crime
- More likely to be influenced by others and coerced into offending
- Lack of understanding of morals, don't know it's wrong
71
Defence Mechanisms
Used by the EGO to reduce anxiety which would otherwise weaken the EGO and the ID or the Superego would become dominant. DISPLACEMENT & RATIONALISATION
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Displacement
The focus of a strong negative emotion is shifted from its actual target to a neutral target. Directs a negative emotion onto a 'safer' target
73
Rationalisation
Explaining a behaviour is a rational and acceptable way when it is actually not. Much like minimalisation as offenders justify their crime
74
Custodial Sentencing
Serving time in a prison or young offender's institute
75
4 Types of Custodial Sentencing
Incapacitation
Rehabilitation
Retribution
Deterrence
76
Incapacitation
Offenders are prevented from offending or the duration of the sentence as a emans of protecting the public. The need for incapacitation will depend on upon the severity of the crime & nature of the offender
77
Rehabilitation
Involves changing the offender, such that they become a law-abiding citizen upon release and are less likel y to reoffend.
This includes counselling or therapy sessions, and may be given training where they are taught skills to help them cope upon release
78
Retribution
Means that society 'gets its own back' on the offender by making the offender pay back society in some way. The offender suffers in a way where the level of suffering is equal to the severity of the crime
79
Deterrence
Attempts to prevent reoffending by highlihgting the unpleasant consequences of criminality
GENERAL DETERRENCE & INDIVIDUAL DETERRENCE
80
General Deterrence
Aims to 'put off' the rest of the population from committing the same crime. Thus, deterrence acts as a vicarious negative reinforcer, preventing offending through obervation of the negative consequences for others.
Sees others being punished > Want to avoid punishment > Encourages law-abiding behaviour (SLT)
81
Individual Deterrence
Should prevent the offender from committing the same crime in the furute. Thus, deterrence acts as a direct negative reinforcer, preventing offending through negative consequences of being sent to prison
People get punished in prison (lack of freedom) > Encourage law-abiding behaviour > Avoid punishment in future (Behaviourism)
82
Recidivism
Persistent committing of crime/reoffending
83
Psychological Effects of Custodial Sentencing
Negative Effects on Mental Health
Institutionalisation
Prisonisation
84
Psychological Effects: Negative Effects on Mental Health
- Sucicide rates in prison are significantly higher than the general population (TOPP (1974) found 65 per 100,000 compared to 16 per 100,000
- Instances of self-mutilation and self-harm are also higher in prison
- Prison may increase the risk of developing a psychological disorder after release
85
Psychological Effects: Institutionalisation
- Prisoners may become accustomed to the nmorms and routines of prison that they can no longer cope when released (ZIMBARDO)
- For a small minority, prison may act as a positive reinforcer for offending as it provides food, warmth and shelter which may not be accessible outside of prison
86
Psychological Effects: Prisonisation
- Prison has been referred to as a 'school for crime' as younger criminals have the opportunity to learn from more experienced offenders
- Behaviour considered unaccpetrable outside of prison may be encouraged and rewarded inside, possibly reinforcing both pro-criminal attitudes and unaccpetable behaviour and lead to recidivism
- Offending is normalised in prisons as all inmated are offenders leading to reoffending when released
87
Reasons Why Recidivism Rates may be high
Prisonisation (see Psychological Effects)
Institutionalisation (see Psychological Effects)
Non-Adherence to Behaviourist Principles
Mental Health & Addiction Issues
88
Non-Adherence to Behaviourist Principles
- For punishment/reinforcement to have the greatest effect it needs to be recieved at the same time as the action. As sentencing occurs much later than when the crime was committed, punishment has a much weaker effect.
- Therefore, prison won't act as an indivdual deterrence so will not stop people from reoffending
89
Mental Health & Addiction Issues
- Reoffending is more likely if an offender's mental health is unstable. This could be prompted by the prison situation or could already be unstable prior to conviction.
- Addiction is also related to crime rates, so if not treated in prison, may make an offender vulnerable to reoffending
90
Behaviour Modification
Based on the principles of Operant Conditioning & built around the idea that maladaptive behaviour is learned and can be extinguished and replaced by adaptive behaviour
91
Positive Reinforcement
Acting for a reward, increases freq. of a behaviour when applied
92
Negative Reinforcement
Acting to avoid a negative, increases freq. of behaviour when removed
93
Punishment
Presentation of an adverse event that causes a decrease in a specific behaviour
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Primary Reinforcer
Stimulus that's naturally rewarding
95
Secondary Reinforcer
Stimulus that reinforces behaviour when it's associated with a primary reinforcer
96
Anger Management
Assume that offenders commit crimes because they can’t control their anger
97
Three Stages of Anger Management
Cognitive Preparation
Skill Acquisition
Application Practice
98
Cognitive Preparation
Offender learns to recognise their feelings of anger and recognise events and situations that are triggers through individual discussion
99
Skill Acquisition
PPs learn coping skills to deal with anger-provoking situations. They allow time of cognitive restructuring of angry throughts into rational ones:
Can be cognitive, behavioural, or physiological
100
Cognitive Coping Skills
Positive self talk (e.g. counting to 10)
101
Behavioural Coping SKills
Assertiveness Training (e.g. Positive communication to deal with triggers)
102
Physiological Coping Skills
Relaxation techniques
103
Application Practise
Re-enactment of anger-provoking scenarios through role play to learn to use the coping skills. Should be met through positive reinforcement from the therapist so the skills are more likely to be used in everyday life
104
Restorative Justice
Involves the offender making amends directly with their victim
105
Uses of Restorative Justice
Alternative to Custodial Sentencing
Add-on to Custodial Sentencing
Add-on to Non-Custodial Sentencing
106
Different Forms of Restorative Justice
Face to face meetings
Practical reparation
Financial restitution
107
Face-To-Face Meetings
Focuses on the acppetance of responsibility & bringing about positive change rahter than punishment. Can involve other relevant members of the community. Allow the offender and victim to communicate in a controlled setting with a trained mediator
108
Practical Reparation
e.g. repairing damaged property as a consequence of the crime. Can be used in situations where there’s vandalism to ensure that the community sees that the wrong against it is rectified
109
Financial Restitution
e.g. Paying towards the victim. May reflect the amount of psychologial or physical damage done.
