Forensic Psych Flashcards

Question

A03) Bottom up approach

Answer 1

Supports A01) Geographical profiling P) One strength of geographical profiling is the supporting evidence. E) Lundrigan + Canter (2001) --> Collated info from 120 murder cases, involving serial killers in the US. SSA revealed spatial consistency in their behaviour. The location of each body disposal site created a CENTRE OF GRAVITY. E) Offenders start from their home base and would go in different directions each time they needed to dump a body, which created a CIRCULAR around the home base, as the offenders bases were located at the centre of the pattern. L) This supports the view that geographical information can be used to identify an offender.

Answer 2

Challenges A01) Copson's challenging evidence P) A challenge of investigative profiling comes from evidence by Copson (1995), as he finds some benefits, but negatives to suggest that profiling isn't useful. E) Copson (1995) --> Surveyed 48 UK police forces using investigative profiling and found that over 75% of the police officers questioned, said that the profiler's advice had been useful. C) However, only 3% said that the advice had helped IDENTIFY the ACTUAL offender. Yet, most said they would use a profiler again. C) This implies that the method may not be that useful in ACTUALLY catching offenders, but the slight benefit that it brings makes it worthwhile. CP: However, another contrast point to its benefits is that not all police use profilers. In Copson's study, in one year, the maximum number of crimes per year where profiling was used was only 75 cases!!!

Answer 3

Weakness of RM) Geographical info is insufficient P) A weakness of geographical profiling is that it may be reliant on the quality of data, that the police can provide. E) The recording of crime is not always accurate, as this can VARY between police forces. There is an estimate that 75% of crimes are not even reported to the police in the first place. C) This makes us question the use of an approach that RELIES on the accuracy of geographical data. C) This suggests that GI ALONE, may not always lead to the SUCCESSFUL capture of an offender.

Answer 4

Weakness of RM) Final conclusions P) A weakness of offender profiling is that it can't RELIABLY identify an offender, as suggested by the views of police forces, who have used the techniques, as well as the success rates. E) The big danger lies in sticking too closely to one profile, as was the case in the murder of Rachel Nickell, who was 21, a Mother and stabbed to death in 1992, in front of her 2 year old son. The profile created led to the identification of Colin Stagg, when it was actually Robert Napper who was the killer. Napper had been ruled out because he was taller than what was given in the profile. C) Thus, while an offender profile can be helpful in narrowing down possibilities, it must be utilised with great caution, to avoid wrongful arrest and convictions. C) Therefore, offender profiling has its flaws, as wrongful arrests can lead to damaged lives, if not used with caution, which is a weakness of the bottom up approach.

Answer 5

Atavistic form --> Biological approach to offending attributes criminal activity, to the fact that offenders are GENETIC THROWBACKS, or a primitive sub species, who are ILL-SUITED to conforming to modern society's rules. Such individuals are DISTINGUISHABLE by particular FACIAL CHARACTERISTICS.

Answer 6

An early historical perspective for explaining criminal behaviour was suggested in the 1870's. Lombroso suggested that criminals were genetic throwbacks - a primitive subspecies who were BIOLOGICALLY DIFFERENT to non-criminals. Offenders were seen as lacking EVOLUTIONARY development - their SAVAGE and UNTAMED nature meant that they would find it IMPOSSIBLE to ADJUST to the demands of CIVILISED SOCIETY and would turn to CRIME.

Answer 7

Lombroso argued the criminal subtype could be identified as being in possession of "physiological markers", that were linked to types of crime. Biologically determined, mainly features of the face + head, that make criminals physically different to the rest of us. They include: - Narrow, sloping brow - Strong, prominent jaw - High cheekbones - Facial asymmetry - Dark skin - Extra toes, nipples or fingers He went on to CATEGORISE particular types of criminal, in terms of their PHYSICAL + FACIAL characteristics. Murderers - Bloodshot eyes, curly hair + long ears. Sexual deviants - Glinting eyes, swollen fleshy lips + projecting ears. Fraudsters - Lips were "thin" and "reedy".

Answer 8

Lombroso examined the FACIAL + CRANIAL features of HUNDREDS of ITALIAN CONVICTS. Italy (1871) - Studied skull of thief + arsonist Villella. Used a post mortem + discovered he had an indentation at the back of his skull (found in apes). Further research: - Skulls of 383 dead criminals + 3839 living ones. - Associated with a number of PHYSICAL ANOMALIES, which were KEY INDICATORS of CRIMINALITY. - Concluded that 40% of criminal acts are committed by people with atavistic characteristics.

Answer 9

P) A weakness of Lombroso's theory is that it might be seen as supporting the EUGENICS philosophy and its practices. E) This is because he is linking criminals to "undesirable traits", to encourage only "desirable" people to reproduce, to create a "desirable society", which will appear criminal free. E) This could be seen as stopping criminals who have these characteristics, as it encourages the castration of them, to prevent genetic crime. L) Therefore, Lombroso's theory could be seen as supporting eugenics and the idea of a "desirable person" in society, which could be seen as discrimination.

Answer 10

Supports A01) Influential P) Strength of Lombroso's work --> Very influential. Prior to his work, criminality was often seen from a religious perspective and was attributed to bad spirits and devil influence. E) Lombroso's theory, although lacking the scientific rigour of today, was an attempt to bring explanations of criminality into the REALMS OF SCIENCE. E) This suggests that Lombroso made a MAJOR contribution to the science of CRIMINOLOGY, as his theory HERALDED the BEGINNING of OFFENDER PROFILING. L) Therefore, Lombroso was influential on the science of criminology, although it does lack the scientific rigour of modern studies.

Answer 11

Weakness of RM) Scientific Racism P) Weakness of Lombroso's theory --> May be a form of scientific racism. Several critics have drawn attention to the DISTINCT RACIAL UNDERTONES within his work. E) Example --> DeLisi (2012) looked at the features that Lombroso identified as criminal, including CURLY HAIR and DARK SKIN, and found that they are most likely to be found among people of AFRICAN DESCENT. E) He was basically suggesting that Africans were more likely to be offenders, which is a view that fitted 19th CENTURY EUGENIC attitudes. L) This suggests that some aspects of his theory were HIGHLY SUBJECTIVE rather than objective and were influenced by RACIAL PREJUDICES of the time.

Answer 12

Challenges A01) Goring (1913) P) Challenge --> Comes from Goring (1913), who set out to establish whether there were any PHYSICAL ABNORMALITIES among offenders. E) After conducting a comparison between 3000 criminals + 3000 non-criminals, he concluded that there was NO EVIDENCE that offenders are a distinct group with unusual facial and cranial characteristics. C) Although, he did suggest that many people who commit crime have lower than average intelligence. C) However, his findings challenge the idea that offenders can be physically distinguished from the rest of the population and are thus UNLIKELY to be a subspecies, as his evidence CONTRADICTS the link between atavism and crime.

Answer 13

Weakness of RM) Poor control P) Limitation --> Lombroso's methods of investigation were poorly controlled, as he failed to control important variables within his research. E) Unlike Goring, Lombroso DID NOT compare his criminal sample with a NON CRIMINAL CONTROL GROUP. This could have controlled any CONFOUNDING VARIABLES that might've explained HIGHER CRIME RATES in CERTAIN GROUPS of people. E) For instance, research has demonstrated links between crime + social conditions, such as poverty + poor educational outcomes (Hay+Forrest,2009) These are links that would explain why offenders were more likely to be unemployed, for example. L) This suggests that Lombroso's research DOES NOT meet modern scientific standards.

Answer 14

Challenges A01) Nature or Nurture? P) An alternative explanation that challenges Lombroso's work, is the idea that nature and nurture may INTERACT, as OTHER FACTORS may influence their offending. E) Lombroso proposed the atavistic form, which suggests that crime has a biological cause, so it is GENETICALLY determined and BEYOND the CONTROL of the individual. He believes that criminals are "genetic throwbacks", who are FURTHER BACK IN THE EVOLUTIONARY CHAIN. C) However, even if there are criminals who have SOME of the atavistic features, this does not mean this is the CAUSE of their offending. Facial and cranial differences may be influenced by OTHER FACTORS, such as POOR DIET or POVERTY, rather than being INHERITED. C) This suggests that criminals are BOTH BORN+MADE, so NATURE AND NURTURE INTERACT, where crime is concerned.

Answer 15

Genetics - Genes consist of DNA strands. DNA produces "instructions" for general physical features of an organism eg. eye colour, height and also specific physical features eg. neurotransmitter levels and size of brain structures. These may impact psychological features.

Answer 16

Genes predispose individuals to criminal behaviour. Adoption studies - Crowe (1972) - Adopted children who had a biological parent with a criminal record had a 50% risk of having a criminal record by 18. Adopted children whose Mother didn't have a criminal record had a 5% risk. Twin studies - The concordance rate of twins for criminal behaviour gives an indication of the extent that offending behaviour could be heritable. Lange (1930) - One of twins had served time in prison. MZ concordance - 10/13 (77%) DZ concordance - 2/17 (11.8%) Sample size - 13MZ + 17DZ Raine (1993) - MZ - 52% , DZ - 21% Sample size - Review of 13 studies Christiansen (1977) - MZ - 35%, DZ - 13% Sample size - 3,586 twin pairs

Answer 17

Candidate genes - Genetic analysis of almost 800 FINNISH OFFENDERS by Tiihonen et al (2015). He suggested that two genes may be associated with violent crime: MAOA gene - Control DOPAMINE and SEROTONIN in the brain, is associated with aggressive behaviour, which causes offending behaviour. CDH13 gene - Linked to SUBSTANCE ABUSE and ADHD. In the Finnish sample, individuals with a high risk combination were 13x more likely to have a history of VIOLENT BEHAVIOUR. Analysis found that 5-10% of all SEVERE violent crime in Finland is attributable to the MAOA + CDH13 genotypes.

Answer 18

Diathesis stress model A tendency towards offending may come about through the combination of GENETIC PREDISPOSITION and biological or psychological triggers eg. being raised in a dysfunctional environment or having criminal role models.

Answer 19

Weakness of RM: P) A limitation of using twin studies as genetic evidence is the assumption of equal environments. E) It is assumed by researchers studying twins that environmental factors are held constant, because twins are brought up together and thus must experience similar environments. However, this "shared environment assumption" may apply much more to MZ twins than DZ, because MZ twins look IDENTICAL and people tend to treat them more similarly, which in turn, affects their behaviour. E) Therefore, higher concordance rates for MZ's in twin studies may simply be because they are treated much more similarly than DZ twins. C) However, adoption studies are more reliable, as they eliminate the shared environment variable.

Answer 20

Supports A01: P) One strength is support for the diathesis stress model of offending. A study of over 13,000 Danish adoptees was conducted by Mednick et al (1984). When neither the biological or adoptive parents had convictions, the percentage of adoptees that did was 13.5%. E) This figure ROSE to 20% when either of the bio parents had convictions, and 24.5% when BOTH adoptive and bio parents had convictions. C) This shows that genetic inheritance plays an important role in offending, but environmental influence is clearly also important, providing support for the diathesis stress model. C) Therefore, an interactionist approach may be critical to take, as genetics and an environmental trigger plays a role.

Answer 21

Consider how STRUCTURES of the BRAIN may be different in criminals, as well as there being differences in NEUROTRANSMITTER LEVELS.

Answer 22

Regions of the brain - A common observation is that criminals report having had some head injury. Harmon, 2012 - In general, 8.5% of the US population have had a BRAIN INJURY compared with 60% in US prisons. Prefrontal cortex - Regulates emotional behaviour and controlling moral behaviour. Raine (2004) - Cited 71 brain imaging studies - Showed that murderers, psychopaths and violent offenders have reduced functioning in the PFC, so they're not able to regulate their emotional behaviour, which leads to criminal activity. Limbic system - A central part of the brain where emotions are modulated and could be argued to be implicated in offending behaviour. Raine et al (1997) - Studied not guilty by reason of insanity. NGRI's showed LESS ACTIVITY in the FRONTAL LOBE (especially the PFC), which is associated with RATIONAL THINKING, MEMORY and SELF RESTRAINT. LESS ACTIVITY in the PARIETAL LOBE --> associated w/ ABSTRACT thinking, such as morality/justice, which makes them commit. MORE ACTIVITY in OCCIPITAL LOBE (vision).

Answer 23

APD - antisocial personality disorder eg. reduced emotional responses, lack of empathy --> linked with criminal behaviour. Serotonin - Seo et al (2008) suggests that LOW LEVELS of the neurotransmitter serotonin may PREDISPOSE individuals to IMPULSIVE AGGRESSION and CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR, because serotonin normally INHIBITS the PFC. Dopamine hyperactivity may ENHANCE this effect. Noradrenaline - Wright et al, 2015 - Both HIGH and LOW levels of noradrenaline have been associated w/ AGGRESSION, VIOLENCE and CRIMINALITY. High levels associated w/ activation of the SYMPATHETIC NERVOUS SYSTEM and the FOFR , thus linked to AGGRESSION. Low levels would REDUCE the ability to help people react to PERCEIVED THREATS.

Answer 24

Mirror neurons - - Criminals w/ APD can experience empathy, but less than the rest of us. - Keysers et al (2011) - Found only when criminals ASKED to empathise did their empathy reaction ACTIVATE (controlled by mirror neurons). - This suggests that APD individuals may have a NEURAL SWITCH that can be turned ON and OFF, unlike the NORMAL BRAIN, which has the EMPATHY SWITCH PERMANENTLY ON.

Answer 25

Supports A01: P) One strength of the NE is support for the LINK between CRIME and the FRONTAL LOBE. E) Kandel + Freed (1989) reviewed evidence of FRONTAL LOBE DAMAGE (including PFC) and ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOUR. E) People with such damage tended to show IMPULSIVE BEHAVIOUR, EMOTIONAL INSTABILITY and an INABILITY to learn from their MISTAKES. L) This supports the idea that brain damage may be a CAUSAL factor in offending behaviour, as the frontal lobe is associated with planning behaviour.

Answer 26

Weakness of RM: P) A weakness of g + n explanations is that they may be OVERLY SIMPLISTIC + INAPPROPRIATE, so a form of BIOLOGICAL REDUCTIONISM. E) Crime does appear to run in families, but so does EMOTIONAL INSTABILITY, MENTAL ILLNESS, SOCIAL DEPRIVATION and POVERTY (Katz et al, 2007). This makes it difficult to DISENTANGLE the effects of g + n influences from OTHER POSSIBLE FACTORS. E) Additionally, MZ twins DON'T SHOW 100% concordance. Low concordance rates in genetic studies suggest that genes play a MINIMAL ROLE in CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR, so ENVIRONMENTAL factors are likely to be RESPONSIBLE aswell. L) Therefore, the diathesis - stress model could be used to explain criminal behaviour where concordance rates for MZ twins are not 100%.

Answer 27

Weakness of RM: P) A weakness of the g/n explanation, is that the notion of a "criminal gene" creates an ETHICAL DILEMMA. Our LEGAL SYSTEM is based on the premise that criminals have PERSONAL + MORAL responsibility for their crimes and only in extreme cases, such as diagnosis of MI. E) If people claim they were not acting under their own FREE WILL, it raises ETHICAL questions about what society does with people who are suspected of carrying CRIMINAL GENES and what implications this might have for sentencing. E) This presents society with an ethical dilemma, as it means that perhaps we have to INCARCERATE people with criminal genes, BEFORE they have committed crimes. OR it might mean we prevent them from reproducing, as the EUGENICS movement would suggest this would prevent the genes being passed on. L) Therefore, if criminals are imprisoned and found to carry this gene, it raises questions whether they should ever be released if they could not control or stop themselves from committing crimes.

Answer 28

Eysenck's personality theory: 1967 Eysenck developed a theory of personality based on the idea that character traits tend to cluster along three dimensions. The criminal personality - An individual who scores highly on measures of extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism (added later). It cannot be easily conditioned. Is cold and unfeeling. Likely to engage in offending behaviour.

Answer 29

Inbetween neurotic and introvert: Moody, Anxious, Pessimistic Inbetween extrovert and stable: Sociable, Outgoing, Talkative Inbetween stable and introvert: Calm, Reliable, Peaceful Inbetween extrovert and neurotic: Active, Optimistic, Impulsive

Answer 30

Eysenck Personality Inventory form of psychological test. Puts people along the E and N dimensions, which determines their personality type. Added psychoticism later. Criminals were thought to be high in extraversion, neuroticism and psychoticism. Low impulse control --> Emotionally unstable, extraversion High impulse control --> Emotionally stable, introversion

Answer 31

Cold, heartless offender, who has an inability to feel remorse and guilt.

Answer 32

Chronically under-aroused nervous system, which leads to sensation seeking and risk taking behaviour.

Answer 33

Unstable, unpredictable behaviour, moody, insecure and anxious.

Answer 34

- Eysenck (1982) suggested that each trait has a biological basis, which is mainly innate, he claimed that 67% of the variance for the traits is due to GENETIC FACTORS.

Answer 35

- Extraversion - Determined by the overall level of arousal in a person's nervous system. Underactive NS --> Requires more stimulation and extraverts seek external stimulation, to increase cortical arousal. Over aroused person --> Doesn't need this. Criminal example: Police chases

Answer 36

- High level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system - they respond quickly to situations of threat (fight or flight). This means they tend to be nervous, jumpy + anxious. - Stable person --> More underactive NS --> calm under pressure. Criminal example: Could impulsively murder someone.

Answer 37

- Related to higher levels of testosterone, which means men are more likely to be found to be found on this spectrum. Criminal example: Aggression, abuse.

Answer 38

LINK TO CRIMINAL BEHAVIOUR!!!

Answer 39

- Eysenck saw offending behaviour as developmentally IMMATURE. It is selfish and concerned with immediate gratification (impatient + cannot wait for things). - During socialisation, children are taught to delay gratification. - Eysenck believed that people with high E and N scores have NS that are difficult to be conditioned. This means they are less likely to learn anxiety responses to antisocial impulses, so are more likely to act antisocially.

Answer 40

P) Support for Eysenck's theory comes from Eysenck + Eysenck (1977), who compared 2070 male prisoners' scores on the EPI, with 2422 male controls. Groups were subdivided into age groups, ranging from 16-69 years. E) On measures of psychoticism, extraversion and neuroticism, across ALL AGE GROUPS, prisoners recorded HIGHER scores than controls, which accords with the predictions of the theory. C) However, Farrington et al (1982) reviewed several studies and reported that offenders tended to score HIGH on P measures, but NOT for E and N. There is also VERY LITTLE EVIDENCE of consistent differences in EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between extroverts + introverts. C) This casts doubt on the physiological basis of the theory.

Answer 41

P) A weakness of Eysenck's theory is that it may be culturally biased. E) Bartol + Holanchock (1979) looked into cultural differences. They studied Hispanic + African American offenders in a maximum security prison in NEW YORK. They divided these into 6 groups, based on the CRIMINAL HISTORY and NATURE of the offence. C) Findings - Revealed that all 6 groups were found to be LESS EXTROVERT than a non-criminal group. Bartol et al suggests that this was because the sample was a VERY DIFFERENT CULTURAL group than Eysenck's. C) This questions the generalisability of the criminal personality, as Eysenck's theory may also be imposed etic.

Answer 42

P) A strength of Eysenck's theory is that he recognises that personality may have a GENETIC BASIS and this fits well w/ other bio explanations. E) Also some overlap w/ research into APD (antisocial) and the suggestion that offenders are cold, uncaring and can't empathise. Eg. Raine --> Differences in brain structure + function (damaged prefrontal cortex = impulsive behaviour), which Eysenck attributes to the activity of the NS. C) Therefore, because of its biogical basis, Eysenck's theory does suffer from the same limitations as genetic + neural explanations, but is supported by research into APD.

Answer 43

P) A weakness of Eysenck's theory --> built on the premise that it's possible to measure personality through a psychological test. E) Critics --> Suggested that personality type may not be REDUCIBLE to a score in this way, and many argue there is NO SUCH THING as personality. C) Daily basis --> We play different parts + our personality may change depending on WHO we're with and the SITUATION we're in (Mischel,1998). C) There may be no fixed + unchangeable "TRUE SELF" directing our behaviour. Therefore, this questions the INTERNAL VALIDITY, as he may not be measuring personality ACCURATELY.

Answer 44

- Centre around the idea that the way a person thinks and processes information helps us understand why some people commit crime. 1) Level of moral reasoning --> The process by which an individual draws upon their own value system to determine whether an action is right or wrong. Kohlberg: First researcher to apply the concept of moral reasoning to criminal behaviour. - Attempted to objectify this process by identifying different levels of reasoning, based on answers to moral dilemmas. - Many studies have shown that criminals have a lower level of moral reasoning than non criminals. - Kohlberg (1973) --> Found that a group of violent youths were significantly lower in their moral development than non-violent youths, even after controlling for social background. - Example: Heinz Dilemma: 1963 - A woman near death from rare cancer. - One drug to save her, but druggist was charging 10x the cost to make. $200 for radium, $2000 for a small dose. - Husband didn't have enough money. Could only get together $1000. Druggist wanted full price. - Heinz broke into the store + stole the drug for his wife. Is this right?

Answer 45

Level 1 - Preconventional morality: Stage 1- Punishment orientation - Rules obeyed to avoid punishment. Stage 2- Instrumental orientation - Rules are obeyed for personal gain. Level 2 - Conventional morality: Stage 3 - Good boy/good girl orientation - Rules are obeyed for approval. Stage 4 - Maintenance of social order - Rules are obeyed to maintain the social order. Level 3 - Postconventional morality: Stage 5- Morality of contract + individual rights. Impartial rules are obeyed. Stage 6- Morality of conscience The individual has his or her own rules in accordance with personal ethical principles.

Answer 46

- Criminal offenders --> Likely to be classified in the preconventional level (stages 1+2). - PL --> Need to avoid punishment + gain rewards, less mature + childlike reasoning. - People who reason this level may commit crime if they can get away with it or gain rewards eg. money. - Also supported by studies which suggest offenders are more egocentric + display poorer social perspective taking skills than non offenders (Chandler, 1973). - Individuals in higher levels --> More sympathy, honesty + non violent.

Answer 47

P) Support for level of moral reasoning comes from Palmer + Hollin (1998), who compared moral reasoning between 210 female non offenders, 122 male non offenders + 126 convicted offenders, using the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure Short Form (11 moral dilemmas). E) Findings --> The delinquent group showed LESS MATURE moral reasoning than non delinquent group, which is consistent with Kohlberg's predictions. E) Blackburn --> Suggests delinquents may show poor moral development due to a lack of role playing opportunities in childhood. L) Therefore, opportunities to develop moral reasoning should be provided.

Answer 48

P) Support for level of moral reasoning comes from Palmer + Hollin (1998), who compared moral reasoning between 210 female non offenders, 122 male non offenders + 126 convicted offenders, using the Socio-Moral Reflection Measure Short Form (11 moral dilemmas). E) Findings --> The delinquent group showed LESS MATURE moral reasoning than non delinquent group, which is consistent with Kohlberg's predictions. E) Blackburn --> Suggests delinquents may show poor moral development due to a lack of role playing opportunities in childhood. L) Therefore, opportunities to develop moral reasoning should be provided.

Answer 49

P) Challenge comes from Gibbs (1979) --> proposed revised version w/ two levels: immature and mature. E) 1st level --> Moral decisions guided by avoidance of punishment + personal gain. 2nd level --> By empathy, social justice + one's own conscience. E) Additionally, Gibbs argued it should be abandoned, because it's CULTURALLY BIAS towards Western culture + therefore imposed etic on other cultures. + Didn't represent a natural maturational stage of cognitive development, as supported by Piaget's theory, which suggests that childlike reasoning is EGOCENTRIC, which gives way to empathy for others as children get older. L) Therefore, Kohlberg's model is challenged by many theories.

Answer 50

P) Challenge --> Level of moral reasoning may depend on the type of offence. E) Reid + Thornton (1982) --> Found that individuals who committed crimes for financial gain eg. robbery, were more likely to show preconventional moral reasoning, than those convicted of impulsive crimes eg. assault, where moral reasoning was not evident. Because offenders believe they have a good chance of avoiding punishment in preconventional. E) Langdon et al (2010) --> Suggested that intelligence may be a better predictor of criminality. Low intelligence = less likely to commit crime. L) This challenges Kohlberg's model, as he suggests they're more likely to commit in the preconventional level.

Answer 51

Cognitive distortions are faulty, biased or irrational ways of thinking that make people perceive themselves or others inaccurately. Often in a more negative way. Two types: Hostile attribution bias + minimalisation

Answer 52

The tendency to judge ambiguous situations. The tendency for violence is associated with a tendency to misinterpret the actions of other people. Assumes others are being confrontational when they are not. Explains crimes because: - Offenders may misread non-aggressive cues. eg: being "looked at" may trigger a disproportionate, violent response. Roots in childhood: Dodge + Frame (1982) - Showed children video of an ambiguous provocation (intention neither hostile nor accidental). - Children identified it as "aggressive".

Answer 53

Attempt to deny or downplay the seriousness of an offence. A "euphemistic label" for behaviour - Bandura, 1973 Explains crimes because: - Burglar may describe themselves as "doing a job" or "supporting my family" way of minimising the SERIOUSNESS of their offences. - Usually applied to sex offenders. Barbaree (1991) - 26 incarcerated rapists - 54% denied they had committed an offence. - 40% minimised the harm they had caused to the victim. Pollock and Hashmall (1991) - 35% child molesters sample argued that crime was "non sexual", just affectionate. - 36% stated victim had consented.

Answer 54

P) A strength of the hostile attribution bias is the research evidence to support it. E) Schonenberg + Justye (2014) showed emotionally ambiguous faces to 255 violent offenders. They compared responses to matched control normal participants. E) Findings: Offenders were more likely to interpret any pictures that had some expression of anger, as an expression of aggression. L) This research suggests that misinterpretations of non verbal cues eg. facial expressions, may at least partly explain aggressive impulsive behaviour in susceptible individuals.

Answer 55

P) Another strength is the supporting evidence for minimalisation. E) Kennedy + Grubin (1992) found that sex offenders account of their crimes often downplayed their behaviour. For example, the offenders suggested that the victims behaviour contributed to the crime. Some also denied that a crime had been committed. C) HOWEVER, Maruna + Mann (2006) suggested that this is fairly normal behaviour, where people try to lame events on external sources, to protect the self. C) Therefore, downplaying or denying things may not be especially deviant behaviour.

Answer 56

P) Although understanding cognitive distortions probably can't be used in the IDENTIFICATION of criminals, it can be used in TREATMENT, so has RWA. E) Heller et al (2013) --> Worked with a group of young men who were mainly from disadvantaged groups in Chicago. They used CB techniques to reduce judgement + decision making errors (cognitive distortions). E) PP's who attended 13 one hour sessions had a 44% REDUCTION in arrests, compared to a control. L) Therefore, understanding cognitive distortions leads to improved treatment.

Answer 57

An explanation for offending which proposes that the individuals learn the values, attitudes, techniques and motives for criminal behaviour, through interaction with others. Proposed by Sutherland, as he believed it might be possible to develop a mathematical formula which would predict whether or not someone would turn to crime, based on their social contacts.

Answer 58

- Attitudes towards crime (procriminal or anticriminal) Procriminal must outweigh anticriminal - Which types of crime are acceptable in their community - Specific methods of commiting crimes

Answer 59

- Attitudes + behaviours are learned through association + relationships w/ intimate groups eg. friends, family. - From the wider neighbourhood - the degree to which the local community supports/opposes crime.

Answer 60

- Specific offending techniques are passed on from one gen to the next through socialisation. - Attitudes + expectations of those around us to reinforce our behaviours - direct/indirect operant conditioning (vicarious).

Answer 61

1) criminal behaviour is learned - This means that it is not inherited. 2) interaction w/ others in a process of communication (normally verbal, but includes gestures). 3) Within intimate, personal groups. This disregards the impersonal communication eg. the media. 4) The learning includes a) techniques + b) motives, drives, rationalisations, attitudes. 5) The learning is directional. 6) One becomes criminal bcuz of an excess of definitions favourable to law violations over unfavourable. 7) Differential associations (learning experience). 8) The learning process involves the SAME MECHANISMS as any other learning. 9) Criminal behaviour is not explained by general needs eg. not everyone with the need for money turns to crime.

Answer 62

P) A strength of DA theory is that it changed people's views about the origins of criminal behaviour. E) The theory marked an important shift from "blaming" individual factors to pointing to social factors. C) The theory suggested that crime didn't need to be explained in terms of personality (challenge Eysenck), but could be explained by social experiences. C) Therefore, the approach has important real world implications, because learning environments CAN be changed, whereas genes CANNOT.

Answer 63

P) Supporting evidence of the DA theory states that criminality appears to run in families. E) Osborn + West (1979) --> Found that 40% of the sons had committed a crime by 18 years old, when they had a Father w/ a criminal conviction, compared to 13% of non-criminal Fathers. C) However, such findings can be explained by genetics as well, which is a flaw of this evidence. C) Therefore, there is supporting research, but it could be due to genetics aswell.

Answer 64

P) Supporting evidence of the DA theory states that criminality appears to run in families. E) Osborn + West (1979) --> Found that 40% of the sons had committed a crime by 18 years old, when they had a Father w/ a criminal conviction, compared to 13% of non-criminal Fathers. C) However, such findings can be explained by genetics as well, which is a flaw of this evidence. C) Therefore, there is supporting research, but it could be due to genetics aswell.

Answer 65

P) There is more supporting evidence by Akers et al, who surveyed 2500 male + female adolescents in the US, to investigate drinking + drug behaviour. E) He found that the most important influence on this form of deviant behaviour was from PEERS, supporting the interaction within intimate groups element. E) Additionally, he found that differential association, differential reinforcement + imitation combined to account for 68% of the variance in MARIJUANA use and 55% of ALCOHOL use. L) This shows that the interaction with others around you, can be a leading factor in deviant behaviour.

Answer 66

P) Weakness --> Difficult to test. Hard to see how the number of pro-criminal attitudes a person has / has been exposed to could be measured. E) Similarly --> theory is built on the assumption that offending behaviour will occur when pro-criminal values outweigh anti-criminal ones. C) However, without being able to measure them, it is difficult to know at what point the URGE to offend is REALISED and the criminal career TRIGGERED. C) The theory does not provide a satisfactory solution to these issues, which therefore undermines its scientific credibility.

Answer 67

P) Weakness --> Not everyone who is exposed to criminal influences goes on to commit crime. E) Danger within DA theory of STEREOTYPING individuals who come from impoverished, crime ridden backgrounds as "unavoidably criminal". It ignores the fact that these people may choose not to offend. E) Also environmental determinism --> We learn criminal behaviour through associating with other criminals + adopt pro-criminal attitudes and values. L) Therefore, the theory may be seen as discriminating + doesn't consider other reasons for crime eg. genetic.

Answer 68

- A group of theories influenced by the work of Sigmund Freud, which share the belief that unconscious conflicts, rooted in early childhood (Freudian principle) + determined by interactions with parents, drive future - and in this case - criminal behaviour.

Answer 69

Superego --> Likely to be related to offending behaviour, because it is concerned with right + wrong (morality). If it is deficient or inadequate then criminal behaviour is inevitable, because the id is given free rein + not controlled. Three ways this might happen: 1) Weak or undeveloped superego --> If the same gender parent is absent during phallic stage, a child cannot internalise a fully formed superego, as there is no opportunity for identification. Leads to immoral, offending behaviour. 2) Harsh or undeveloped superego --> An excessively punitive parenting style leads to a child with an over harsh superego, which is crippled by guilt + anxiety. May unconsciously drive criminal acts to satisfy the superego's OVERWHELMING need for punishment. 3) Deviant superego --> If the superego that a child internalises has immoral or deviant values, this would lead to offending behaviour.

Answer 70

Bowlby (1951,1953) proposed that prolonged separations between a Mother and child would have long term emotional consequences. Only have this effect if it happens before the age of 2.5 + if there is no substitute Mother - person. One possible long-term consequence: Affectionless psychopathy - Characterised by guilt, empathy and lack of feeling for others. How does it lead to delinquent behaviour? - If one cannot feel guilty, they are more likely to engage in criminal behaviour + cannot develop close relationships.

Answer 71

Supports this hypothesis: - Found through interviews with the thieves and their families, that 14 of the sample he studied showed personality + behavioural characteristics that could be classified as AFFECTIONLESS PSYCHOPATHY. - Of this 14, 12 had experienced PROLONGED SEPARATION from their Mothers during infancy (first two years). - In a non offender group, only 2 had experienced similar early separation. - Bowlby concluded the effects of MD had caused affectionless and delinquent behaviour among the juvenile thieves.

Answer 72

P) A weakness of the Freudian theory is that it assumes girls develop a weaker superego than boys, which is clear gender bias. E) Having not experienced castration anxiety, girls are under more pressure to identify w/ their Mothers, so their superego + sense of morality is less fully realised. C) The implication of this is that females should be more prone to criminal behaviour than males, which is not supported by evidence (stats of male-female ratio in prison). For example, Hoffman (1975) found hardly any evidence of gender differences and when there was, little girls tended to be more moral than little boys. C) This suggests that the Freudian theory used in crime is clear gender bias, as research disapproves this.

Answer 73

P) A weakness of psychodynamic explanations is that they suffer from a lack of FALSIFIABILITY. E) The many unconscious concepts with Freudian theory mean that applications to crime are not open to empirical testing. C) In the absence of supporting evidence, arguments such as the inadequate superego can only be judged on their face value, rather than their scientific worth. C) For this reason, psychodynamic explanations are regarded as pseudoscientific and may contribute little to our understanding of crime, or how to prevent it.

Answer 74

P) Real world applications of psychodynamic explanations for crime come from Bowlby, who focused on emotional separation. E) His findings had implications for prevention of delinquency. Example --> Treatment of emotional problems in young delinquents is slow and difficult, so he suggested that is is preferable to try to prevent the problem in the first place, by avoiding early separations. E) In his early research, Bowlby demonstrated that the key was emotional separation, rather than just physical. So, they showed that children coped reasonably well with separations from parents, as long as alternative emotional care was provided. L) This has been focused more on in the modern day, which may prevent future crimes being committed.

Answer 75

P) Weakness of Bowlby's 44 thieves study is that the findings aren't causal, as separation was NOT manipulated. E) All that is demonstrated in the study is an ASSOCIATION between separation and emotional problems. E) So, there may be other variables that caused the emotional problems. Example --> Discord in the home caused separation between Mother + child and also caused the affectionless nature of some of the children. It could even be that the affectionless character caused the separation in some cases. L) Therefore, a weakness of this explanation is that it is based off NON CAUSAL FINDINGS.

Answer 76

Aims of custodial sentencing: Custodial sentencing - A judicial sentence determined by a court, where the offender is punished by serving time in prison (incarceration) or in some other closed therapeutic/ educational institution

Answer 77

Aims of custodial sentencing: Custodial sentencing - A judicial sentence determined by a court, where the offender is punished by serving time in prison (incarceration) or in some other closed therapeutic/ educational institution, such as a psychiatric hospital. Recidivism - Re-offending, a tendency to relapse into a previous condition/ behaviour, in the context of crime.

Answer 78

Deterrence - Unpleasant prison experience put off society from engaging in offending behaviour. - Two levels: General deterrence - Aims to send broad message to members of society, that crime will not be tolerated. Individual deterrence - Prevent individual for committing the same crime.

Answer 79

Incapacitation - Offender is taken out of society to prevent reoffending. Protecting the public Need of incapacitation depend upon severity of offence + nature of offender.

Answer 80

Retribution - Society is enacting revenge for the crime. Making the offender suffer Level of suffering - proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. "Eye for an eye" Other options criticised as "soft options".

Answer 81

Rehabilitation - Main objective of prison as not purely to punish, but to reform. Offenders leave prison better adjusted and ready to take place back in society. Gives them opportunities to develop skills and become a functioning member of society. Treatment programmes.

Answer 82

Custody can have negative effects on mental health: Stress + Depression - Suicide rates are higher in prison, than in the general population, as are cases of self harm. - If a prisoner suffers from MH issues previous to their sentence, this is likely to worsen in prison. - Stress of prison experience increases risk of psychological disturbance following release. - Howard League for Prison Reform: Reported 10,000 incidents of self harm in 2008, but may be explained in terms of conformity (becoming part of inmate culture - Newton, 1980).

Answer 83

- Having adapted to the norms and values of prison life, some prisoners find it impossible to cope in the REAL WORLD after release. - Some commit crimes with intention of being arrested and returned to the comfort of what they know - prison.

Answer 84

- Refers to the way prisoners are socialised into adopting an "inmate code". - Behaviour that are unacceptable in the outside world are encouraged + rewarded inside. - Example: Unofficial hierarchy of prisoners. - Zamble (1992) - 7 year longitudinal study of long term inmates who lost emotional connections due to decreased time socialising (avoiding conflict). Would affect social skills on the outside.

Answer 85

- Growing prison population in UK hasn't been matched by an increase in prisons. - MoJ (2012) - 25% of prisoners are in overcrowded accommodation. - Effect of this: Calhoun's 1962 study with rats showed that overcrowding led to increased aggression, hypersexuality, increased physical illness.

Answer 86

- UK --> Some of highest rates of recidivism in World. - 2013 --> 57% of UK offenders will reoffend w/ a year of release. - 2007 --> 14 prisons in England + Wales - reoffending rates 70% + - Norway --> Lowest reoffending rates in Europe (less than 1/2) - Different prisons --> more open, greater emphasis on rehabilitation + skills development.

Answer 87

P) Support for psychological effects arising due to custodial sentencing. Comes from Bartol (1995) --> Suggested that prison can be brutal, demeaning + devastating for many offenders. E) Last 20 years --> Suicide rates among offenders tended to be around 15x higher than in the general population. Most at risk --> Young, single men during first 24 hours of prison. C) Recent study --> The Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 25% of women + 15% of men reported symptoms indicative of psychosis. It seems that the oppressive prison regime may trigger psychological disorders in vulnerable prisoners. C) Suggests that custodial sentencing is NOT EFFECTIVE in REHABILITATING the individual, particularly those who are psychologically vulnerable.

Answer 88

P) However, individual differences need to be considered, as although it may be psychologically challenging for many, it cannot be assumed that all offenders will react in the same way. E) Different prisons --> different regimes --> likely to be wide variations in experience. C) In addition --> length of the sentence, reason for incarceration and previous experience of prison may all be important factors. Finally, many of those convicted may have had pre-existing psychological + emotional difficulties. C) Therefore, it is difficult to make general conclusions that apply to every prisoner + prison, due to individual differences.

Answer 89

P) Strength of custodial sentencing --> Many prisoners access education + training whilst in prison --> improved character --> can lead a crime-free life. E) Access to education --> increases possibility they'll find employment upon release. Also, treatment programmes eg. anger management --> reduces likelihood of recidivism. C) However, many prisons lack the resources to provide these programmes, and even when they can, evidence to support the LONG term benefits is not conclusive. C) Therefore, prisons may be a worthwhile experience, but only if prisoners can access these programmes.

Answer 90

P) Weakness of custodial sentencing --> Offenders may undergo a more DUBIOUS education --> could negatively influence their behaviour. E) Alongside legitimate skills that may be acquired, younger prisoners may receive "tricks of the trade" from hardened, more experienced offenders. E) Like "universities for crime". L) Undermines attempts to rehabilitate prisoners, making reoffending more likely.

Answer 91

Behaviour modification - An application of the behaviourist approach to treatment, based on the principles of operant conditioning. The general aim is to replace undesirable behaviours w/ more desirable ones through positive/negative reinforcement.

Answer 92

Systems of reward + punishment to encourage obedience + avoidance of conflict in prison. Reinforcement - Desirable behaviour rewarded with a token. Tokens exchanged for desirable goods, increasing repetition of that behaviour. Food = primary reinforcer Tokens = secondary reinforcer Behaviour hierarchy - Some behaviours get more tokens than others. Rewards clearly defined at outset. Punishment - TEP's can be used as negative punishment to reduce undesirable behaviour. Tokens can be removed as a form of punishment. Shaping - Longer term objectives taught through shaping. Tokens given for increasingly complex behaviours. Example: Tokens given for making bed daily then later for politeness.

Answer 93

What is a desired behaviour What is a token How are tokens allocated (how many for each reward aswell) What is the reward How there will gradual changing of the giving of tokens to shape behaviour. How the reward will be removed once the behaviour is achieved.

Answer 94

Aim: Discover the effects of a TEP on the behaviour of delinquents in 3 small delinquent centres. Sample: 125 delinquent males committed to the Alabama Boys Industrial School (ABIS) Age range 12-15 years Boys live in independent cottage units Had charges ranging from truancy to arson + homicide. Procedure: TEP introduced to 3 cottages. The 4th cottage was a control group, to compare. Target behaviours: Staff in the cottages agreed on these: - Following rules in group games - Completing chores - Interacting with peers - Line behaviour Data collection: Boys' names listed on a daily behaviour chart - cottage supervisor marked each behavioural category. Boys were told staff were taking records. Signs were posted listing criteria. Boys in each cottage rated on each behaviour by TWO staff members. Tokens + reinforcers: Each day --> supervisor counted tokens each boy had earned. Weekly --> Went to token economy store + exchanging their tokens for a variety of reinforcers: - Sweets - Games - Cigarettes Tokens can be SAVED in the bank and exchanged for more expensive reinforcers eg. going home.

Answer 95

- Data collected over 14 months - TE resulted in an INCREASE in the mean percentage of appropriate behaviours for each cottage, with NO noticeable improvement in comparison one. A - 66% to 91% B - 46% to 80% C - 73% to 94% TEP's are successful :)

Answer 96

- Token economy groups showed more desirable behaviour than control groups. - After 2 years, the token economy groups were less likely to have reoffended. - However, after 3 years, rates of recidivism went back to reflecting NATIONAL STATISTICS.

Answer 97

P) Strength of TEP's --> Easy to implement. There is no need for expertise or specialist professionals, as there would be for other treatment. E) TE systems can be implemented by VIRTUALLY ANYONE ANYWHERE. Also COST EFFECTIVE + EASY TO FOLLOW, once workable methods of reinforcement have been established. C) However --> does depend on a consistent approach from prison staff. Bassett + Blanchard (1977) confirmed any benefits WERE LOST after staff applied the techniques inconsistently, due to FACTORS such as LACK OF APPROPRIATE TRAINING or HIGH STAFF TURNOVER. C) Therefore --> They may be cost-effective, but do depend on staff approaches.

Answer 98

P) Support for token economies in custody comes from Tarbox, et al (2006). E) Tarbox proved the token economy approach as very SUCCESSFUL within schools + dealing with people w/ AUTISM. C) Additionally,1970's - Became popular in the US + was being used in nearly all states. Research showed that socially approved behaviours were ENHANCED + criminal behaviours DIMINISHED (Milan + McKee, 1976). However, it fell out of favour after this time, because good results DID NOT PERSIST. Use in UK limited to young offender institutions (Cullen + Seddon). C) Therefore, it has LIMITED SUCCESS in prisons.

Answer 99

P) Challenge --> Blackburn (1993) - Stated it has little rehabilitative value and any positive changes that may occur in prison, will be lost when they are released. E) TE system --> At its best when establishing appropriate conduct within prison, but progress it unlikely to extend beyond the custodial setting. C) May be because law-abiding behaviour is not always reinforced on the outside OR rewards the offender receives from breaking the law eg. group status, may be more powerful. C) Therefore, it lacks long term effectiveness.

Answer 100

P) Weakness --> Terms + conditions are regarded as manipulative + dehumanising by several commentators (Moya + Achtenburg, 1974). E) In an institution using it, participation in the scheme is OBLIGATORY for all offenders rather than optional. C) Although ultimately the offender can DECIDE whether to COMPLY w/ the scheme or break rules, critics have suggested its ethically questionable, due to the withdrawal of privileges eg. exercise + contact w/ loved ones. C) Therefore, there are ethical concerns with TEP's, such as loss of human rights.

Answer 101

A therapeutic programme that involves identifying the signs that trigger anger, learning techniques to calm down + deal with the situation in a positive way. Aim is to recognise + manage anger. Can be offered in prison to encourage self awareness + facilitate rehabilitation.

Answer 102

AMP - A form of CBT Novaco (2011): - Cognitive restructuring - Greater self awareness (yourself, your triggers) - Regulation of arousal - Learning to control the physiological state. - Behavioural strategies - Problem solving skills, Strategic withdrawal

Answer 103

- Three key steps - CALM PEOPLE SHOULD AVOID ANGRY PEOPLE :) - Cognitive preparation: Offenders reflect on past experiences and consider the typical pattern of their anger. They identify the situations which act as triggers to anger. If the way in which the offender interprets the event is irrational, the therapist's role is clear. - Skills acquisition: Offenders introduced to a range of techniques + skills to help them deal with anger provoking situations more rationally + effectively. Techniques may be; cognitive - positive self talk to encourage calmness behavioural - assertiveness training, to encourage effective communication physiological - deal w/ physical reaction to anger, such as relaxation training/meditation. - Application practice: Offenders given opportunity to practice skills within a carefully monitored environment. Role play - likely to involve them re-enacting scenarios that may have escalated anger + violence in the past. Requires a certain amount of commitment from offender, as they must see the scenario as real.

Answer 104

Keen et al (2000): - Studied progress made w/ young offenders (17-21) who took part in a nationally recognised AMP. - National Anger Management Package --> Devised in 1992, updated in 1995, developed by England + Wales Prison Service. - Course made up of EIGHT 2 hour sessions. - First seven --> Over 3 week period Last sessions --> A month later - Initial issues --> course not taken seriously, individuals forgetting routines. - Final outcomes --> Generally positive. - Offenders reported increased awareness of their AM difficulties + an increased capacity to deal with it.

Answer 105

P) A strength of AMP is their success in reducing anger. E) Example - Taylor + Novaco (2006) report 75% improvement rates, based on 6 metaanalyses. Landenberger + Lipsey (2005) - Analysed 58 studies using CBT w. offenders, 20 of which used anger control as part of the therapy. Findings: Having an anger control element was significantly related to amount of improvement. C) However, not all studies have been positive. Howells et al --> Cite 5 meta-analytic studies which showed only MODERATE benefits of AM programmes. Law (1997) - Reported a study where only ONE PERSON improved. C) Therefore, anger control seems important, but there is contradictory evidence also.

Answer 106

P) Weakness --> Variability in anger programmes. Some are brief, lasting a few days (Ireland, 2004), whereas others span across years. E) Some courses are ran by psychologists, whereas others are ran by less experienced prison staff. Different kinds of offenders and different AMP's --> makes compatibility difficult. C) Other important issue is assessment of anger. Either done via self report measures or observations by prison staff, both of which are subject to bias. Hello - goodbye effect - Where patients may portray themselves in a more positive light after treatment, because they want to be helpful in showing the therapy "worked". C) Therefore, there are lots of issues surrounding AMP, which may affect the internal validity.

Answer 107

P) Weakness --> Follow up studies show AM does not work in long term. E) Blackburn (1993) - Points out that whilst anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short term, there is very little evidence it reduces recidivism in the long term. C) May be because the application phase relies heavily on ARTIFICIAL role play, which may not properly reflect all the triggers that could be present in a real life situation. C) Even though many anger management programmes are delivered outside of the prison environment, any progress made may be short term, compared to real life situations.

Answer 108

P) Weakness --> Expensive to run, as they require the services of highly trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. E) Many prisons may not have the resources to FUND such programmes, so whether an offender can access support may come down to something of a POSTCODE LOTTERY. E) Additionally, the success of AM is often based on the commitment of offenders, which may be an issue if prisoners are uncooperative + apathetic. L) Therefore, they are expensive + require commitment, which is tricky for all prisons to achieve.

Answer 109

A system for dealing with criminal behaviour, which focuses on the rehabilitation of offenders through RECONCILIATION with VICTIMS. Enables the offender to see the IMPACT of their crime + serves to EMPOWER victims, by giving them a VOICE. - Victims encouraged to take an active role, while offenders are required to take responsibility.

Answer 110

- Braithwaite (2004) - "crime hurts, justice should heal". - Process of MANAGED COLLABORATION between offender + victim. - Based on principles of HEALING and EMPOWERMENT. - Supervised meeting --> Attended by a TRAINED MEDIATOR, VICTIM + OFFENDER. - Victim can CONFRONT the offender and EXPLAIN how the incident AFFECTED them. - Offender able to see the CONSEQUENCES of THEIR ACTIONS. IMPORTANT part of the REHABILITATION process.

Answer 111

- Focus on acceptance of responsibility + positive change - less emphasis on punishment. - Not restricted to courtrooms. - The term "victim" is avoided + survivors + offenders may voluntarily choose to meet face to face. - Community member may be present. - Active rather than passive involvement. - Focus on positive outcomes for survivors and offenders.

Answer 112

- Not all restorative programmes involve face-face encounters. - Offender may make some financial restitution to the victim. - Offender may repair damaged property themselves. - Flexible - Alternative to prison Add on to community service Incentive - may lead to reduction of sentence.

Answer 113

P) Support of restorative justice --> Empirical studies of its effectiveness are rare, but there are some. E) Shermam and Strang (2007) compared 26 studies of restorative justice w/ conventional justice eg. prison. E) Findings: Reductions in reoffending rates for violent + property crimes particularly. For victims, incidents of PTSD were significantly reduced + all parties reported greater satisfaction w/ the overall process, than for conventional justice. L) This suggests that restorative justice may have positive outcomes for VICTIMS AND OFFENDERS.

Answer 114

P) One strength of restorative justice is that (unlike custodial sentencing), there is a degree of FLEXIBILITY in the way which programmes can be administered. E) The term itself covers a WIDE range of possible applications (including schools + hospitals). E) This is positive, as schemes can be ADAPTED and TAILORED to the needs of the INDIVIDUAL situation. Criticism: However, this does present difficulties in terms of drawing general conclusions about the effectiveness of the approach. L) Therefore, the approach is flexible, but general conclusions drawn can be difficult.

Answer 115

P) Weakness --> The success of the programme hinges upon the extent to which the offender feels remorse for their actions. E) There is a danger that some offenders may sign up for the scheme to AVOID PRISON, or for the promise of a REDUCED SENTENCE, rather than a genuine willingness to make amends to the victim. C) The victim themselves may also have an ULTERIOR MOTIVE to seek revenge or retribution of their own. C) This means that restorative justice programmes may not lead to positive outcomes, when pp's do not agree to take part w/ the best of intentions.

Answer 116

P) Weakness --> Requiring the input of a skilled + experienced individual to act as a MEDIATOR is pricey. E) Specialist professionals who are trained in these matters (an emotionally charged affair) are likely to be EXPENSIVE and few and far between (not many). E) Additionally, restorative justice programmes often suffer from HIGH DROPOUT RATES, as offenders OR victims may lose their nerve prior the scheduled meeting + withdraw from the scheme. C) This means that in practice it may not always be the best + most cost effective solution. Contrast point: Shapland et al (2007) concluded that every £1 spent on RJ would save the criminal justice system £8 through reduced reoffending. This was found through a 7 year government funded project.