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Psychology Paper 3 > Forensic > Flashcards

Forensic Flashcards

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1
Q

Offender profiling

A

Police build a picture of who they are looking for to help make an arrest

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2
Q

What is the top-down approach to offender profiling?

A

Based on 36 interviews with sexually motivated serial killers
Starts with a general classification of the crime scene into organised or disorganised
Profilers will match what is known about the crime to a pre-existing template
This classification informs subsequent police investigation

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3
Q

What are the characteristics of an organised criminal?

A
  • crime is planned
  • victim is specifically targeted
  • body transported from the scene
  • weapon is hidden
  • high intelligence
  • socially and sexually motivated competent
  • have a car
  • follow their crimes in the media
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4
Q

What are the characteristics of a disorganised criminal?

A
  • crime is unplanned
  • victim is randomly selected
  • offender is unlikely to engage with victim
  • sexual acts are performed after death
  • weapon and clues may be found at crime scene
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5
Q

What happens after classification (top-down offender profiling)?

A

Once they have matched the crime to a pre-existing template, profilers can construct a profile
This includes hypothesis about the offender’s background, habits, beliefs, etc.
Used to work out a strategy of investigation
Profilers also consider how the offender is likely to react if they are being investigated

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6
Q

What is a strength of top-down profiling? APPLICATION+

A

Supportive evidence: APPLICATION
Arthur Shawcross was a serial killer who was found using this approach
He murdered 11 prostitutes after being released from prison
He was profiled correctly as a white male, lower mental age, low paid jobs, etc.

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7
Q

What is a limitation of top-down profiling? RELIABILITY-

A

Evidence doesn’t support the disorganised offender
David Canter analysed data from 100 murders in the USA using smallest space analysis
The details of each case were analysed with reference to 39 characteristics thought to be typical of organised and disorganised killers
Findings: suggested evidence of a distinct organised type, not the case for disorganised though. -> undermines the classification system as a whole

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8
Q

What is a limitation of top-down profiling? APPLICATION-

A

Only applies to particular crimes
Best suited to crime scenes that reveal something about the offender e.g. rape, arson, cult killings as well as crimes involving macabre practices e.g. sadistic torture, body dissection and acting out of fantasies
More common offences such as burglary or destruction of property (or even murder or assault during the course of this) don’t lend themselves to profiling as crime scene doesn’t say much about them

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9
Q

What is a limitation of top-down profiling? VALIDITY-

A

Based on outdated models of personality
The classification system is based on the assumption that offenders have behavioural patterns and motivations that remain consistent across situations and contexts
Alison et al. (2002) suggests this is naive and informed by old-fashioned models of personality that side behaviour as being driven by dispositional traits rather than ext. factors -> can be constantly changing

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10
Q

What is the bottom-up approach to offender profiling?

A

Canter’s bottom-up approach looks for consistencies in the offenders behaviour during the crime
These can be inferred from the crime scene, or the surviving victims accounts
No initial assumption is made about the offender until a statistical analysis using correlational techniques has been carried out on the details of the cases
This approach relies heavily on computer databases being accurate
This approach can be considered more objective and reliable

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11
Q

What is investigative psychology?

A

Inputting data into the data system and receiving a profile we can correlate with crimes
Aim is to establish patterns of behaviours that are likely to happen - or co-exist - across crime scenes (in relation to offender profiling)
This is to develop a statistical “database” which acts as a baseline for comparison
Specific details about an offence or related offences can be matched against the database to reveal important info about the offender.
May also determine if a series of offences are linked

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12
Q

Geographic profiling

A

Uses information to do with the location of linked crime scenes to make inferences about the likely home or operational base of an offender - known as crime mapping
Can also be used in conjunction of psychological theory to create hypotheses about how the offender is thinking as well as their modus operandi
The assumption is that serial offenders restrict their “work” to areas they are familiar with, so understanding the spatial pattern of their behaviour provides investigators with a “centre of gravity” - likely to include offenders base
Also allows investigators to make educated guesses as to where they might strike next “jeopardy surface”

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13
Q

What is Canter’s circle theory? (geographic profiling - bottom-up)

A 
Canter and Larkin proposed two models of offender behaviour:
The marauder (who operates in close proximity to their home)
The commuter (who is likely to have travelled a distance away from their usual residence)
The pattern of offending is likely to form a circle around their usual residence (becomes more apparent, the more offences)
Such spatial decision-making can give the investigative team important insight into the nature of the offence (e.g. planned or opportunistic). It also reveals info about offender (e.g. "mental maps", mode of transport, employment status, approx age, etc.)
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14
Q

Limitations of the bottom-up approach?

A
  • anomalies
  • inaccurate victim accounts
  • human error
  • eye-witness testimony
  • data being lost (e.g. by computers crashing or being hacked)
  • not all crimes are reported
  • leading questions impacting the accuracy of data (surviving victims)
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15
Q

What is the atavistic form (historical biological explanation)?

A

Using Darwin’s theories, Lombroso thought criminals were a separate species of mankind
He suggested criminals were throwbacks to an earlier species
Atavistic means a tendency to revert to an ancestral type (developed characteristics of ancestors, rather than modern)
He professed that criminals could be identified by a series of distinguishing physical characteristics such as:
-asymmetrical face
-unusually large or small ears
-a low receding forehead
-prominent eyebrows, jawbones or cheekbones

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16
Q

What were the three types of criminals identified by Lombroso?

A

Born criminals - the atavistic type
Insane criminals - suffering from mental illness
Criminaloids - mental characteristics predisposed them to criminal behaviour under the right circumstances

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17
Q

What is a gene?

A

Part of a cell in a living thing which controls its physical characteristics, growth, and development

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18
Q

Is there genetic basis for criminal behaviour?: Lange study into twins and criminal behaviour

A

He studied 13 MZ twins and 17 DZ twins where at least one in each pair had served time in prison
10 MZ twins had their co-twin who was also in prison
MAOA has been associated with aggression
It regulates the metabolism of serotonin in the brain
Low levels of serotonin are linked with impulsive and aggressive behaviour
CHD13 linked to ADD and substance abuse

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19
Q

Research support for CHD13 and MAOA genes?

A

Tiihonen (2015) 900 found low MAOA activity and also low activity of the CHD13 gene
They estimated around 5-10% of all violent crime in Finland is due to abnormalities in one of these two genes

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20
Q

Diathesis stress (biological explanation - genetics)

A

If genetic do have some influence it would seem likely that this is at least part moderated by the environment
A tendency towards criminal behaviour may come about through genetic predisposition and biological or psychological trigger - i.e. having criminal role models

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21
Q

Research support for diathesis stress (biological explanation - genetics)

A

Mednick (1984) conducted an adoption study of 13,000 Danish adoptees
Compared likelihood of the adoptee having a criminal record considering if their biological or adoptive parents did

The percentages show the biological link is stronger, however environmental still has an impact:
No criminal record for biological or adoptive: 13.5%
Biological parents had criminal record: 20%
Biological and adoptive parents had criminal record: 24.5%

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22
Q

Biological explanations: neural explanations

A

Neural explanations consider how brain structures may be different in criminals as well as there being differences in neurotransmitter levels

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23
Q

Biological explanations: neural explanations (brain structure)

A
  1. Pre-frontal cortex (deals with decision-making)
    Raine (2004) 71 brain imaging studies showed that criminals have reduced functioning in the pre-frontal cortex. Lowered activity in this area is associated with loss of control.
  2. Limbic system
    This is made up of structures such as the thalamus and the amygdala, which are linked to emotion.
    Raine (1997) found murderers who were not guilty by reason of insanity has reduced activity in the limbic system.
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24
Q

Biological explanations: neural explanations (neurotransmitters)

A
  1. Serotonin
    Researchers suggest that low levels of this neurotransmitter may predispose individuals to aggressive and criminal behaviour.
    Serotonin inhibits the prefrontal cortex. Dopamine hyper-activity may enhance this effect.
  2. Noradrenaline
    Very high and very low levels have been associated with aggression and criminal behaviour.
    High levels are associated with activation of the sympathetic nervous system and the fight or flight response e.g. someone bumps into them accidentally, they may go into fight (esp. if can’t process emotions)/flight response
    Low levels would reduce the ability for people to react to perceived threats
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25
Q

Evaluation of the neural explanation (neurotransmitters)

A

…. lesson 6

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26
Q

What is Eysenck’s personality theory? (Psychological explanation)

A

Eysenck developed a theory of personality based on the idea that character traits tend to cluster along three dimensions.

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27
Q

What are the three dimensions that Eysenck believes character traits cluster along?

A

Extraversion/ introversion
Neuroticism/ stability
Psychoticism/ stability (this was added later on)

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28
Q

Examples of extraversion/ introversion characteristics

A
  • sociable (E)
  • active (E)
  • passive and unsociable (I)
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29
Q

Examples of neuroticism/ stability characteristics

A
  • moody and anxious (N)
  • calm (S)
  • leadership (S)
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30
Q

Examples of psychoticism/stability characteristics

A
  • aggressive (P)
  • impulsive (P)
  • calm (S)
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31
Q

What did Eysenck suggest about each trait’s basis?

A

He suggested that each trait has a biological basis which is mainly innate

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32
Q

What biological basis is extraversion determined by?

A

Extraversion is determined by arousal in nervous system

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33
Q

What biological basis is neuroticism determined by?

A

Neuroticism is determined by the level of stability in the sympathetic nervous system, how much a person responds in situations of fight or flight

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34
Q

What biological basis is psychoticism related to?

A

Psychoticism is related to higher levels of testosterone.

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35
Q

Eysenck’s personality theory is a way of explaining criminal behaviour.
What does he say about extraversion and criminal behaviour?

A

Extraverts seek more arousal so are more likely to engage in dangerous activities.

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36
Q

Eysenck’s personality theory is a way of explaining criminal behaviour.
What does he say about neuroticism and criminal behaviour?

A

Neurotics are unstable and therefore prone to overreact in some situations - may explain some criminal behaviour.

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37
Q

Eysenck’s personality theory is a way of explaining criminal behaviour.
What does he say about psychoticism and criminal behaviour?

A

Individuals are aggressive and lack empathy, easily linked to crime.

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38
Q

What is the cognitive theory as a psychological explanation of offending behaviour?

A

Cognitive distortion is a form of irrational thinking. Distortions are ways reality has become twisted.

This can be further divided into:
Hostile attribution bias and minimalisation.

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39
Q

What is hostile attribution bias (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)?

A

Someone who always attributes behaviours to negative things. Someone who always thinks the worst.

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40
Q

What is minimalisation (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)?

A

Consequences of behaviour are down-played

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41
Q

KEY STUDY: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)
Kohlberg (1969)

Who did he interview and what did he interview them about?

A

Boys and men about their reasons for moral decisions.

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42
Q

KEY STUDY: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)
Kohlberg (1969)

What did construct from these interviews?

A

Subsequently, he constructed a stage theory of moral development.

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43
Q

KEY STUDY: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)
Kohlberg (1969)

What are the three levels of his moral development theory?

A

Level 1: Pre-conventional morality
Level 2: Conventional morality
Level 3: Post-conventional morality

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44
Q

KEY STUDY: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)
Kohlberg (1969)

What are the stages in level 1 (pre-conventional morality)?

A

Stage 1: punishment orientation - rules are obeyed to avoid punishment
Stage 2: instrumental orientation or personal gain - rules are obeyed for personal gain

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45
Q

KEY STUDY: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)
Kohlberg (1969)

What are the stages in level 2 (conventional morality)?

A

Stage 3: ‘Good boy’ or ‘Good girl’ orientation - rules are obeyed for approval
Stage 4: Maintenance of the social order - rules are obeyed to maintain social order

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46
Q

KEY STUDY: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)
Kohlberg (1969)

What are the stages in level 3 (post-conventional morality)?

A

Stage 5: Morality of contract and individual rights - rules are obeyed if they are impartial; democratic rules are challenged if they infringe on the rights of others (e.g. if something is breaching human rights)
Stage 6: Morality of conscience - the individual establishes his or her own rules in accordance with a personal set of ethical principles

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47
Q

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)

Positive (CBT)

A

Used when treating criminals
CBT provisions for sex offenders to help them to “sum up”to the extent of the crime
This shows the theory is used in practice
Practical APPLICATION

48
Q

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)

Positive (supportive evidence)

A

Evidence supporting levels of moral reasoning
Palmer and Holm used a scale of 11 moral dilemma related questions - offenders showed to be less mature
Increases RELIABILITY

49
Q

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)

Negative (sample)

A

Kohlberg only interviewed men and boys
This theory therefore may not apply to women
We know that 90% of prisoners in the USA are male, and 95% of prisoners in the UK are male.
Not generalisable to women as we haven’t tested their morality levels, and don’t know why they commit crime.

50
Q

Evaluation of Kohlberg’s stage theory of moral development: (cognitive theory - psychological explanation)

Negative (not explanatory)

A

Cognitive explanations are descriptive, not explanatory
Good at describing criminal minds, less successful when explaining it
Lowers VALIDITY - doesn’t do what it is meant to do which is to explain

51
Q

What is the differential association theory similar to?

A

The social learning theory

52
Q

What are the 9 key principles that Sutherland proposed for this differential association theory?

A
  1. Criminal behaviour is LEARNED
  2. It is learnt through ASSOCIATION with others
  3. The association is with intimate PERSONAL GROUPS
  4. What is learned is TECHNIQUES AND ATTITUDES
  5. The learning is DIRECTIONAL - could be for or against crime
  6. If favourable attitudes OUTWEIGH unfavourable attitudes, that person will become an offender
  7. The learning experiences VARY in frequency and intensity for each individual
  8. Criminal behaviour is LEARNED THROUGH THE SAME PROCESS as any other behaviour
  9. General “need “ is NOT a sufficient explanation for crime
53
Q

What does vicarious reinforcement mean? (Differential association theory)

A

If someone sees a behaviour being rewarded, they’ll be more inclined to copy the behaviour or if it has been punished, they are less likely to copy the behaviour.

54
Q

Evaluation of the differential association theory

Positive

A

Changed peoples views about the origins of criminal behaviour
The theory marked an important shift from ‘blaming’ individual factors to pointing to social factors. The theory suggested that crime did not have to be explained in terms of personality (mad or bad)
Such an approach has important real-world implications because learning environments can be changed
Sutherland also shifted the emphasis away from ‘bad’ individuals by highlighting white-collar crime which is often committed by those otherwise seen as ‘respectable’
ETHICS

55
Q

Evaluation of the differential association theory

Positive

A

Supported by evidence
Osborne and West (1982) found that, where there is a father with a criminal conviction, 40% of the sons had committed a crime by the age of 18 compared to 13% of sons of non-criminal fathers
This evidence suggests that criminality appears to run in families and that therefore suggests that criminal behaviours and attitudes are the result of social learning
RELIABILITY

56
Q

Evaluation of the differential association theory

Negative

A

Methodological issues
This is because it is largely based on correlational analysis
The problem with this type of data is that it is not possible to determine the cause from effect
In terms of peer influences, it could be that offenders seek out other offenders and this would explain why offenders are likely to have peers who are offenders
INTERNAL VALIDITY DECREASES

57
Q

Evaluation of the differential association theory

Negative

A

The differential association explanation struggles to account for all kinds of crime
Social learning influences are probably confined to ‘smaller’ crimes rather than violent and impulsive ones such as rape and murder
On the other hand, in England and Wales in 2014 there were 500 murders and 400,000 burglaries; so the theory is able to explain a large proportion of the crime
A related criticism is that differential association theory also can’t explain why most offences are committed by people under 21

58
Q

Evaluation of the differential association theory

Negative

A

The absence of biological factors from this account is a drawback
The diathesis-stress model may offer a better account by combining social factors with vulnerability factors
Predisposing factors may be innate genetic ones or early experiences such as maltreatment
Indeed, attachment research suggests that emotional problems in childhood make a child vulnerable to deviant peer influences later in life. As such, the social approach on its own may be an insufficient explanation

59
Q

What are two psychodynamic explanations for offending behaviour (psychological explanation)?

A

John Bowlby’s Theory of Maternal Deprivation

Ronald Blackburn’s idea of the inadequate superego

60
Q

What do both psychodynamic explanations have in common?

A

Both of these explanations abide by the Freudian principle that the roots of (criminal) behaviour are formed in childhood

61
Q

What are the stages in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

Critical period
Continuity hypothesis
Intellectual development
Emotional development

62
Q

What is the critical period in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

An attachment must be formed before the age of two

63
Q

What is the continuity hypothesis in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

If an attachment is not formed within the critical period, there will be negative effects that will follow the child into later life, for example affectionless psychopathy

64
Q

What is the intellectual development in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

Bowlby believed that maternal deprivation would lead to mental retardation, an extremely low IQ

65
Q

What is the emotional development in Bowlby’s theory of maternal deprivation?

A

Bowlby believed maternal deprivation would lead to problems with emotional development. He identifies psychopaths, who do not experience guilt, empathy/ strong emotions for others and are unable to appreciate the emotions of others

66
Q

What did Bowlby’s 44 thieves experiment consist of?

A

The study looked at 44 juvenile thieves accused of stealing
They were interviewed for signs of affection-less psychopathy
Families were interviewed to discover any separation/ deprivation
They were compared to a group of non-criminal, but emotionally disturbed young people

67
Q

What were the findings of Bowlby’s 44 thieves experiment?

A

Bowlby found that 14/44 of the thieves could be classified as affectionless psychopaths, and 12 of these bad experienced a prolonged separation from their mother during the first two years
In the control group, only 2 had experienced separation

68
Q

What is our superego?

A

The superego is our “moral compass”and therefore likely to be involved in criminal behaviour as it is concerned with right and wrong

69
Q

What did Blackburn (1993) suggest?

A

Under or over development of the superego may lead to offending behaviour

70
Q

Someone with a strong superego is…

A
  • usually law abiding
  • exceptions - desire for sex leads to strong feelings of guilt
  • guilt = need to be punished
  • crime = punishment –> punishment = satisfy guilt
71
Q

Someone with a weak superego

A
  • lack of loving parent figure during childhood
  • ego balances ID and superego, when the ID outweighs the SE they feel less guilt about innate drives (pleasure)
  • selfish
  • uncaring
  • uncontrolled aggression
  • no care for self or others = no concern for consequences
72
Q

Someone with a deviant superego

A
  • oedipus conflict - boy models father
  • if father is deviant, the son will imitate
    (works the same for Electra complex –> girl and mother)
73
Q

Strength of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Bowlby APPLICATION

A

Bowlby found that his findings had implications for prevention of delinquency
Treatment of emotional problems in young delinquents is difficult so it’s preferable to try prevent the problem by avoiding early separations
In his early research, Bowlby and Robertson’s demonstrated that the key was emotional separation, not just physical. Showed children coped reasonably well with separations from parents as long as alternative emotional care was provided
APPLICATION

74
Q

Strength of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Dietz & Warren (1995) RELIABILITY

A

Dietz and Warren found that 76% of the 41 serial rapists that they interviewed were abused when they were young
RELIABILITY

75
Q

Weakness of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Gender bias GENERALISABILITY

A

Females are said to have weaker superego but there are more male criminals (90% of the prison population in USA are male, and 95% of the prison population in the UK are male)
Freud shows alpha bias –> suggests women are less/lower than men
GENERALISABILITY

76
Q

Weakness of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Socially sensitive ETHICS

A

Socially sensitive as blames parents/ carers for bringing up criminal child
ETHICS

77
Q

Weakness of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Unfalsifiable INTERNAL VALIDITY

A

Unconscious concepts cannot test superego empirically as it is pseudoscientific therefore unfalsifiable
INTERNAL VALIDITY

78
Q

Strength of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Ressler et al (1988) RELIABILITY

A

Resslet et al (1988)
Out of 36 murderers interviewed in the USA 42% were found to have been sexually abused as youngsters
RELIABILITY

79
Q

Strength of the psychodynamic explanation to offending behaviour
Role of emotion considered VALIDITY

A

Important as the role of emotion is considered, unlike the cognitive approach
It considers rejection, early childhood etc.
VALIDITY

80
Q

Five aims of custodial sentencing (D,R,R,I,P)

A
  • deterence - discourages crime
  • retribution - to atone for wrongdoing (reflect and come to terms with actions and understand why what they did was wrong)
  • rehabilitate offenders
  • incapacitation of offenders, protects public
  • punishment, and to prevent recidivism (re-offending)
81
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Zimbardo (1973)

A

Zimbardo (1973) found that uniforms and prisons may lead to de-individuation, which is associated with increased aggression

82
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Abraham (1989)

A

Abraham (1989) found that depression was caused by helplessness and hopelessness
Suicide is a possible outcome of depression. The greatest risk group is single young men, in the first 24 hours of being in prison

83
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Calhoun (1962)

A

Calhoun (1962) showed that overcrowding with rats led to increased aggression, hyper-sexuality, stress and increased physical illness.
Recent data suggests 25% of prisoners are in overcrowded accommodation, with two people in a cell designed for one.
Aggression and sex are the two biggest ways of reducing testosterone surges –> no women, and no space to mark territory (primitive)

84
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Glover (2009)

A

Effects of the family
Children with a mother or father in prison are deeply affected financially and psychologically.
Parents in prison may feel guilt and separation anxiety

85
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Institutionalisation

A

Can’t cope in society after being released e.g. new technology, changes

86
Q

Psychological effects of custodial sentencing

Prisonalisation

A

Criminal behaviour increase due to being around other criminal-minded people

87
Q

Strengths of custodial sentencing

Rehabilitation

A

Rehabilitation
Prison offers the ability to educate the offender and/or treat them for mental health issues
VALIDITY does what the aim is

88
Q

Strengths of custodial sentencing

Recidivism

A

Recidivism

Punishing behaviour decreases the likelihood of offenders repeating the behaviour in the future

89
Q

Strengths of custodial sentencing

Klein et al (1977)

A

Klein et al (1977) found that offenders sentenced to community rehabilitation were less likely to reoffend

90
Q

Weakness of custodial sentencing

Doesn’t deter

A

The Prison Reform Trust (2014) found that 46% of adults were reconnected within one year of release. 67% of under 18 year olds were reconnected within a year.
LESS VALIDITY

91
Q

Weakness of custodial sentencing

Sutherland (1939)

A

Sutherland (1939) differential association theory. Prison may increase the likelihood of crime as there is an increase in the association with people who have pro-criminal attitudes

92
Q

Behaviour modification: token economies

A

Token economy programmes started in the 60’s
They are used to obtain desirable behaviour in closed institutions such as prisons, and they are used for juvenile and adult offenders
Form of behaviour modification
It involves a system of rewards being set up for desired behaviour, sometimes with punishments to discourage undesirable behaviour
Rewards are usually tokens or points; these can be periodically exchanged for something the individual wants
Desirable behaviour such as cooperation and compliance is reinforced with the use of these tokens

93
Q

What do the token economy programmes use in prisons to reduce undesirable behaviour?

A

Negative reinforcement and punishment to reduce undesirable behaviour such as non-compliance and aggression

94
Q

What is an example of typical negative reinforcement?

A

Removal of privileges such as watching TV or going to the exercise yard

95
Q

What is an example of typical punishment?

A

Isolation

96
Q

What do there need to be clear definitions of when using TE programmes?

A
  • what is desired behaviour
  • what is a token
  • how tokens are allocated
  • what is a reward
  • how there will be gradual changing of the giving of tokens to shape the behaviour
  • how many tokens there are for each reward
  • how the reward will be removed once the behaviour is achieved
97
Q

Shaping definition (TE/ behaviour modification)

A

Gradually altering behaviour through selective reinforcement of behaviour that approximate or come close to the desired new behaviour

98
Q

Primary reinforcer

A

An item a person physically needs or desires

99
Q

Positive reinforcement

A

A reward for showing desired behaviour

100
Q

Schedule of reinforcement

A

A choice of how to implement a reinforcement strategy

101
Q

Token

A

Item given as reward

Have no intrinsic value

102
Q

Secondary reinforcer

A

Tokens being given as rewards for target behaviour

103
Q

Negative reinforcement

A

Positive feelings following the removal of an aversive stimuli

104
Q

KEY STUDY - supports TEP

Hobbs and Holt (1976) - the effects of token reinforcement on the behaviour of delinquents in cottage settings

A

A token economy was introduced in a school for delinquent boys to try to reduce inappropriate social behaviour
125 children were observed in four cottages over 14 months. One was a control group with no tokens
Two supervisors observed each boy and recorded behaviours in six categories such as following instructions or completing chores
The boys were told daily how many tokens they had earned, and exchanged them weekly for treats, or saved them for off-campus activities

105
Q

KEY STUDY - supports TEP
Hobbs and Holt (1976) - the effects of token reinforcement on the behaviour of delinquents in cottage settings
FINDINGS

A

Social behaviours increased by an average of 27% in boys who were included in the programme, with no increase in the control group

106
Q

Strength of token economy programmes

Easy to implement

A

Easy to implement
The appeal of B.M is mostly to do with how easy it is to administer. Virtually anyone in the institution can implement the T.E system
It is cost-effective and easy to follow once workable methods of reinforcement have been established

107
Q

Strength of token economy programmes

Clinton Field et al. (2004)

A

Individually tailored programmes are most effective
Clinton Field et al. (2004) examined a T.E. programme used with young people with behavioural problems. The programme was generally effective but there were a no. of young people who didn’t respond. Later the youths were placed on a special programme where rewards were immediate and more frequent and results were positive.
Suggests for maximum effectiveness the programme should be designed so rewards and frequency of rewards suit each individual.

108
Q

Weakness of token economy programmes

John Bassett and Edward Blanchard (1977)

A

Found any benefits were lost after staff applied the techniques inconsistently due to factors such as lack of appropriate training of staff or high turnover

109
Q

Weakness of token economy programmes

Moya and Achtenburg (1974)

A

Ethical issues
Terms and conditions of behaviour modification as regarded as manipulative and dehumanising by several commentators e.g. Moya and Achtenburg (1974). In an institution with the T.E. system, participation is obligatory for all offenders. Although offenders can decide to comply with the scheme or break rules, it has been suggested that the programme, which involves withdrawal of ‘privileges’ such as exercise or contact with loved ones, is unethical.

110
Q

Anger management

A

Anger management is a type of CBT that aims to reduce an emotional response (anger) by reconceptualising the emotion
Its use with prisoners has two aims: reduce anger and aggression in prisons in the short-term and reduce recidivism in the long-term.
Novaco’s model draws on the stress inoculation approach and has three key steps:
1. Cognitive preparation: clients learn about anger and how it can be adaptive and non-adaptive
2. Skill acquisition: clients are taught various skills to help manage their anger
3. Application training: clients apply their skills, first in controlled situations and later in real world settings

111
Q

Weakness of anger management programme

Blackburn (1993)

A

Contradicting research
Blackburn (1993) long term effectiveness is not effective in reducing recidivism as therapy relies on artificial role - play and not real life events

112
Q

Weakness of anger management programme

Two methodological issues

A
  • Some AMP are run by psychologists, others by prison staff (success depends on training of prison) DECREASES RELIABILITY
  • Some studies only last a few days, such as Ireland (2004) but some last years. Less consistent supportive research RELIABILITY
113
Q

Anger Management Programme
Ireland (2004) KEY STUDY
(Strength of anger management programmes)

A 
Jane Ireland (2004) compared the progress of two groups of offenders: one of which tool part in an anger management programme and the other as non-trreatment control.
After the treatment group had completed 12 sessions, outcomes were assessed using three measures: an interview, a behaviour checklist completed by prison officers and a self-report questionnaire:
92% of the experimental group showed an improvement on the checklist and the self-report. There were no such improvements within the control group.
114
Q

Strength of anger management programmes
Taylor and Novoca (2006)
McGuire (2008)
(validity and application)

A

+ Taylor and Novoca (2006) reported 75% improvement rate based on 6 case studies
+ McGuire (2008) found reduction in reoffending after one year. Long term success of AMP is more likely than with behaviour modification as it looks at the cause of the crime. APPLICATION

115
Q

Aims of restorative justice

A

Seeks to achieve justice by repairing the harm done by an offender
This may be a payment letter or interaction between the victim and the offender

116
Q

Four key features of restorative justice

A
  1. Focus on acceptance of responsibility and positive change for people who harm others. Decreases the chances of re-offending( 14% reduction of recidivism)
  2. Not restricted to court rooms. Offenders and victims may meet outside of the courtrooms
  3. Active rather than passive involvement of all parties (+85% satisfaction rate for victims)
  4. Focus on positive outcomes for survivors and those involved in wrong doings (+85% satisfaction rate for victims)

Psychology Paper 3 (2 decks)

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