föreläsningar Flashcards

1
Q

The cost of capital

A

To value a company using enterprise DCF, we discount free cash flow by the weighted average cost ofcapital (WACC). the WACC represents the oportunity cost that investors face for investing their funds in one particular business instead of others with similar risk.

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2
Q

What are the steps in a DCF analysis? (7 steps)

A

DCF Step #1 – Projections of the Financial Statements
DCF Step #2 – Calculating the Free Cash Flow to Firms
DCF Step #3 – Calculating the Discount Rate
DCF Step #4 – Calculating the Terminal Value
DCF Step #5 – Present Value Calculations
DCF Step #6 – Adjustments
DCF Step #7 – Sensitivity Analysis

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3
Q

What determines value?

A

CF and Cost of Capital

CF being dependent on ROIC & Revenue Growth

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4
Q

What is value?

A
  • A company is a collection of assets
  • The value of an assets is equal to the net sum of the present values of future expected cashflows
  • Or the difference between cash flows and the cost of investment made, adjusted for time value of money and risk

• Cash flows are a function of return on
invested capital and revenue growth

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5
Q

Is pushing for growth always value enhancing?

A

The effect of growth depends on cost of capital (9%) and ROIC

Higher ROIC is always value increasing

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6
Q

5 determinants of competitive pressure (Porter):

A
  • Threat of new entry
  • Pressure from substitute products
  • Bargining power of buyers
  • Bargaining power of suppliers
  • Rivalry among competitors
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7
Q

Sources of competitive advantage for firms:

A

Two sources:

Price premium:

  • Innovative products
  • Quality of products
  • Brand (customers willing to pay more base on the brand)
  • Customer lock-in
  • Rational price descipline: Lower bound on prices established by large industry leaders through price signaling or capacity mangement

Cost of capital efficiency:

  • Innovative business method
  • Unique resources
  • Economies of scale
  • Scalable product/process
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8
Q

When does Growth add value to a company?

What does growth depend on?

A

Growth adds value only when ROIC > cost of capital

Growth depends on:

  1. Portfolio momentum (organic growth)
  2. Market share performance (organic growth)
  3. M&A (inorganic growth)
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9
Q

Enterprise Value VS Equity Value

A

Enterprise value equals the value of operations (core businesses) and nonoperating assets, such as excess cash.

Equity value can be computed indirectly by calculating Enterprise Value first and then subtracting any nonequity claims, such as debt.

Equity value = Enterprise value - Debt

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10
Q

The valuation process using enterprise DCF

A

Valuation is an iterative process:

1. Analyze Historical Performance
By thoroughly analyzing the past, we can
document whether the company has
created value, whether it has grown, and
how it compares with its competitors.
  1. Forecast Financials and Cash Flows
    Project financials over the short and medium term. Short-term forecasts should be consistent with announced operating plans. Medium-term forecasts should focus on operating drivers, such as margins, and on capital turnover.
  2. Estimate a Continuing Value
    To forecast cash flows in the long-term future, use a perpetuity that focuses on the company’s key value drivers, specifically ROIC and growth.
  3. Compute the cost of capital
    To value the enterprise, free cash flow is discounted by the weighted average cost of capital. The cost of capital is the blended rate of return for all sources of capital, specifically debt and equity.
  4. Enterprise Value to Equity Value
    To convert enterprise value into equity
    value, subtract any nonequity claims, such as debt, unfunded retirement liabilities,
    capitalized operating leases, and outstanding employee options.
  5. Calculate and Interpret Results
    Once the model is complete, examine
    valuation results to ensure your findings
    are technically correct, your assumptions
    are realistic, and your interpretations are
    plausible.
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11
Q

Equity is a residual claimant, receiving cash flows only after the company
has fulfilled its other contractual claims. In today’s increasingly complex
financial markets, many claimants have rights to a company’s cash flow
before equity holders—and they are not always easy to spot.

name 7 of these claims:

A
  1. Debt. If available, use the market value of all outstanding debt.
  2. Unfunded retirement liabilities. Although total shortfall is not reported on the balance
    sheet (only a smoothed amount is transferred to the balance sheet), the stock market
    values unfunded retirement liabilities as an offset against enterprise value.
  3. Operating leases. The most common form of off-balance-sheet debt is that of
    operating leases. Under certain conditions, companies can avoid capitalizing leases as
    debt on their balance sheets (required payments must be disclosed in the footnotes).
  4. Contingent liabilities. Most cases, operating leases represent the largest off-balancesheet
    obligation. Any other material off-balance-sheet contingencies, such as lawsuits
    and loan guarantees, will be reported in the footnotes.
  5. Minority interest. When a company controls a subsidiary but does not
    own 100 percent, the investment must be consolidated, and the funding
    provided by other investors is recognized on the company’s balance
    sheet as minority interest.
  6. Preferred stock. Although the name denotes equity, preferred stock in
    well-established companies more closely resembles unsecured debt.
  7. Employee options. Each year, many companies offer their employees
    compensation in the form of options. Since options give the employee
    the right to buy company stock at a potentially discounted price, they
    can have great value.
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12
Q

High ROIC companies should focus on growth, while, low-ROIC companies should focus on improving returns before growing.

True/False?

A

True!

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13
Q

The length and detail of the forecast:

The explicit forecast period must be long enough for the company to reach
a steady state, defined by the following characteristics:

A

• The company grows at a constant rate and reinvests a constant proportion
of its operating profits into the business each year.

  • The company earns a constant rate of return on new capital invested.
  • The company earns a constant return on its base level of invested capital.

• In general, we recommend using an explicit forecast period of 10 to 15 years—
perhaps longer for cyclical companies or those experiencing very rapid growth.

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14
Q

7 Components of a good forecasting model:

A

• Many spreadsheet designs are possible. In the valuation example from the
preceding slide, the workbook contains seven worksheets:

  1. Raw historical data from company financials.
  2. Integrated financials based on raw data.
  3. Historical analysis and forecast ratios.
  4. Market data and WACC analysis.
  5. Reorganized financial statements (into NOPLAT and invested capital).
  6. ROIC and free cash flow (FCF) using reorganized financials.
  7. Valuation summary, including enterprise discounted cash flow (DCF),
    economic profit, and equity valuation computations.
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15
Q

Approaches to calculate Continuing Value

A

Recommended Approaches:

  1. Key value driver (KVD) formula.
    The key value driver formula is superior to alternative methodologies
    because it is cash flow based and links cash flow to growth and ROIC.
  2. Economic-profit model.
    The economic-profit model leads to results consistent with the KVD formula,
    but explicitly highlights expected value creation in the continuing-value (CV) period.

Other Methods:

• Liquidation value and replacement cost.
Liquidation values and replacement costs are usually far
different from the value of the company as a going concern. In a growing, profitable industry, a
company’s liquidation value is probably well below the going-concern value.

• Exit multiples (such as P/E and EV/EBITA).
A multiples approach assumes that a company will be worth
some multiple of future earnings or book value in the continuing period. But multiples from today’s
industry can be misleading. Industry economics will change over time and so will their multiples!

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16
Q

Closing thoughts on Continuing Value

A

• Continuing value can drive a large portion of the enterprise value and should
therefore be evaluated carefully.

• Several estimation approaches are available, but recommended models (such as the key value driver and economic-profit models) explicitly consider four components:

  1. Profits at the end of the explicit forecast period—NOPLATt+1
  2. The rate of return for new investment projects—RONIC
  3. Expected long-run growth—g
  4. Cost of capital—WACC

• A large continuing value does not necessarily imply a noisy valuation. Other methods, such as business components and economic profit, can provide meaningful perspective on your continuing-value forecasts.

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17
Q

The estimated beta used in CAPM has some issues:

A

Three problems:

  • High standard error
  • It reflects the firm’s business mix over the period of the regression, not the current mix
  • It reflects the firm’s average financial leverage over the periodrather than the current leverage.
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18
Q

Main findings of “Best practices in estimating the cost of capital”

A
  • DCF is the dominant form to estimate value
  • WACC is the dominant discount factor for DCF valuation
  • Weights are based on market not book value mixes of debt and equity
  • The CAPM is the dominant model for estimating the cost of equity
19
Q

“the WACC FALLACY”

a Explain why firms might overinvest in projects that are riskier than their core operations

A

The intuition:

  • If the risk of a project is > than the WACC => NPV will be inflated > overinvestment in risky projects
  • If the risk of a project < than the WACC => NPV will be deflated > underinvestment in risky projects
  • Over-investment destroy value because of negative NPV, underinvestment destroy value as they are missed opportunities

For Exam: Using your WACC for a different industry will lead to under or over-investment in risky projects in that industry.

20
Q

Why can it be easier to use multiples when valuing a company that operates in multiple industries?

A

Because then you don’t have to compute the WACC for every single industry.

21
Q

When building multiples, the denominator should use a forecast of profits, rather than historical profits, why?

A

– Unlike backward‐looking multiples, forward‐looking multiples are consistent with the principles of valuation-particular, that a company’s value equals the present value of future cash flows, not sunk costs.

– Second, forward‐looking earnings are typically normalized, meaning
they better reflect long‐term cash flows by avoiding one‐time past
charges.

22
Q

Trading vs Transaction multiples:

A
Trading multiples:
• Focus on publicly traded
firms
• Provides up‐to‐date measure of market value
• Focus on larger (possibly
more complex) firms
• Ignores synergies
• Liquid stocks!
• Give and indication of VALUE

Transaction multiples:
• Focus on previous transaction prices (M&As)
• Include acquisition premiums
• Gives information about frequency of transactions and market conditions
• Deal characteristics are noisy and will depend on both firm characteristics and timing
• Synergies might not apply to different transactions
• Given an indication of PRICE

23
Q

Why are M&As important and necessary?

A
  • Improve allocation of resources
  • Discipline managers
  • Value created by M&As is asymmetrically distributed
  • Target shareholders usually gain from a merger
24
Q

Explain how shareholder value theory views corporate social responsibility

A

Shareholder value sees CSR as an extra expense that will reduce the value transferred to shareholders

25
Q

The CousCousShack has a growth rate of 5% and a cost of capital of 12%. If it reinvests half of its NOPLAT, on which value driver should the management focus in order to maximize the value of the
firm? (4 points)

A

Given information on the growth rate and the investment rate we can calculate the ROIC to be 10%. This is lower than the cost of capital which means that the firm should focus on increasing ROIC first.

26
Q

Discuss the value creation potential of generating growth by gaining market share in a mature
market. (3 points)

A

This has low value creation potential, because market share in mature markets can only
mostly be gained via incremental innovation or lower pricing. Incremental innovation can be
easily copied by competitors and lower prices can lead to a pricing war.

27
Q

A firm’s estimated present value of economic profit is € 150 million. Its estimated invested capital is €
250 million. It has cash holdings of € 16 million. The value of debt and capitalized operating leases are €80 million and € 26 million, respectively.

a. What is the value of operations? (3 points)
b. What is the value of equity? (3 points)

A

a. Value of operations = Invested capital + present value of economic profit
150+250 = 400

b. Value of equity = value of operations + non operating assets – debt – debt equivalents
400+16-80-26= 310

28
Q

a. Explain why Return On Invested Capital (ROIC) is a better analytical tool than return on equity (ROE) or return on assets (ROA). (3 points)

b. Given that ROIC, the interest rate on debt, and the debt-to-equity ratio are constant, how will
increasing the tax rate affect ROE? (3 points)

A

a. ROE mixes operating performance with capital structure. ROA includes non operating assets and it ignores the benefits of accounts payable and other operating liabilities.

b. It will increase it.
ROE= ROIC +[ROIC – (1-T)kd]*(D/E)

29
Q

a. How does the growth rate of the economy relate to your choice for the long term growth rate in the terminal value? (3 points)
b. Explain why news about an unexpected increase in inflation lead to a decrease in valuations and stock market prices. (3 points)

A

a. The long term growth rate in the terminal value should not be larger than the nominal growth rate of the economy.
b. Unexpected inflation means that the central bank will have to respond with an increase in interest rates. Higher risk free rate will increase the cost of capital and lead to lower valuations because of a higher discount factor.

30
Q

a) What is the effect on the value-to-EBITA multiple of an increase in growth while holding ROIC, the tax rate, and WACC constant? (3 points)
b. A firm has € 600 market value of equity and € 300 market value of debt. The firm also has € 100 million in nonconsolidated subsidiaries and € 50 in excess cash. If the firm’s expected EBITA is € 100, what is the value-to-EBITA ratio? (3 points)

A

a. This will have an undetermined affect on the value-to-EBITA multiple. The effect of growth depends on the difference between ROIC and WACC
b. Value/EBITA = (600+300-100-50)/100=7.5

31
Q

a. Explain how an acquirer can pay a premium for the target firm and still generate value. (3points)

b. How does the stock price of the target usually react to an acquisition announcement and why?
(3 points)

A

a. As long as the premium is lower than the value of synergies created, the acquisition can still
generate value.

b. The price of the target usually increases to the point that it converges to the value of the firm
plus synergies. This is because market participants anticipate the fact that the acquirer will pay a premium and free ride on the tendering shareholders.

32
Q

A) According to PWC, what are the three main strategies through which PE funds generate returns?

b) What is the main risk factor associated with each of these strategies?

A

A)

  1. Changing capital structure
  2. Buy low, sell high
  3. Buy-and-build (operational improvements)

B)
1.Financial engineering: increased leverage and probability of default

  1. Multiple arbitrage: multiples might have gone down at the time of exit
  2. EBITA-growth: loss of LT competitive advantage due to excessive divestment and restructuring
33
Q

The U.S. senate has just approved a significant tax cut for American corporations. The marginal tax rate
has been reduced from 35% to 20%. Using the key value driver (KVD) formula, discuss how this will affect
the value of US firms. (3 points)

A

The effects will be seen in three parts of the KVD formula. It will increase NOPLAT, decrease the necessary reinvestment rate through and increase in ROIC. These two effects will increase free cash flows and therefore value. However there will also be an increase in the WACC as the value of tax shield will decrease this will increase the discount factor, which will lower the present value of future cash
flows.

34
Q

a. In which cases does growth destroy value and why? (3 points)

b. Which type of business, a software company or a utility (water, gas, electricity) firm, would
benefit more from improving ROIC than from increasing growth? Why? (3 points)

A

a. if WACC > ROIC

b. The utility company would benefit more as ROIC is usually low in the utilities
industry. (Could also mention that it will be hard to keep ROIC higher than WACC
for a long time as competition will erode it away)

35
Q

a. Briefly explain how Corporate Social Responsibility can affect firms’ cash flows and cost of capital. (3 points)
b. Explain the mixed results linking environmental and social policies with value creation found in the article by Krüger (2005) “Corporate Goodness and Shareholder Wealth”. (6 points)

A

a)
CSR can positively affect CF because it decreases the risk that the company will get fined for instance.
Firms with high CSR can also reduce their cost of capital since the market tends to view high CSR companies as less risky.

b)
Evidence of a link between sustainability of value creation is increasing but also plagued by methodological issues:
-Such evidence is however paramount for analysts in determining which sustainability issues to include in company valuation
-Practical problems: data quality, timeliness, causality
-Value-relevance of sustainability might be changing over time

However, for assessing value-creation, looking at sustainability investment in isolation is possibly too simplistic
-It is important to consider sustainability together with traditional good-governance mechanisms that foster shareholder value creation

36
Q

a) Which part of the key value driver formula indicated the ability of a firm to sustain its competitie advantage?
b) How can different assumptions about the LT competetive advantage of a firm be incorporated in the formula for the calculation of the TV? What will those formulas look like?
c) If RONIC is equal to the WACC, does it mean that the company will not create any value after the explicit forecast period? Why?

A

A) RO(N)IC

b) If we assume that all competitive advantage will be eroded wat in the LT then RONIC=WACC and the TV formula will be CV=NOPLAT(t+1)/WACC. If instead we assume that competitive advantage will be sustained forever the TV formula will simplyfy to CV = NOPLAT(t+1)/WACC-g
c) No the company will still create value via the ROIC on its core investments

37
Q

Bigger brewing CO is undergoing a LBO with a projected capital tructur of 80% debt in the near term. There is a projected loan repayment schedule, with the goal of having a capital structure of 50% debt in three years.

a) based on this info, what is the best methodology to value this firm?
b) Explain which discount factors you would use

A

a) The capital stucture is not fixed and will change over time. The appropriate methodology will be the adjusted PV method
b) The firm manages its capital structure to a target debt ratio. Thus i would use the unlevered cost of equity to discount both the FCF and the interest tax shield. Because the ITS will have the same risk as equity

38
Q

Assume that two firms have exactly the same revenues and earnings growth. Will their value be
the same? Why? You can use a numeric example (3 points)

A

No the difference lies in the investment rate.

Formulas

39
Q

Some firms have higher ROIC than others. This is usually a combination of three
factors. What are these three factors? Briefly explain. (3 points)

A
  • Price premium
  • Better cost structure
  • Less capital required
40
Q

Growth comes in three main varieties. What are these three types of growth? Briefly explain and discuss their relative importance and sustainability. (3 points)

A
  1. Portfolio momentum (organic growth)
  2. Market share performance (organic growth)
  3. M&A (inorganic growth)
41
Q

You are trying to estimate the WACC for a private firm:
How would you calculate the cost of debt if the firm has a credit rating and what if it
does not? (3 points)

A
  1. Search Bloomberg (or other financial databases) for the yield to maturity on the
    company’s long‐dated, option‐free debt.
    – To determine price and yield accurately, use only large trades (> $1 million).
  2. If bonds do not trade, instead add a default premium to a benchmark rate.
    – The benchmark rate should be a long‐dated local Treasury bond rate.
    – The default premium is based on the company’s debt rating.
  3. If your company (or client) does not have a debt rating, then use a scoring model to
    estimate a rating.
42
Q

a. What is a forward‐looking multiple? Why should you use a forward‐looking multiple
instead of a backward‐looking multiple when valuing a company? (3 points)

A

When building multiples, the denominator should use a forecast of profits, rather than historical profits.
-Unlike backward‐looking multiples, forward‐looking multiples are consistent with
the principles of valuation—in particular, that a company’s value equals the
present value of future cash flows, not sunk costs.
-Second, forward‐looking earnings are typically normalized, meaning they better
reflect long‐term cash flows by avoiding one‐time past charges

43
Q

a. Explain the difference between shareholder value and stakeholder value. How do these two theories view Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR)? (3 points)

A

a) The shareholder theory was originally proposed by Milton Friedman and it states that the sole responsibility of business is to increase profits. It is based on the premise that management are hired as the agent of the shareholders
to run the company for their benefit, and therefore they are legally and morally
obligated to serve their interests. The only qualification on the rule to make as much money as possible.

Stakeholder theory states that a company owes a responsibility to a wider group of
stakeholders, other than just shareholders. A stakeholder is defined as any person/group which can affect/be affected by the actions of a business. It includes employees, customers, suppliers, creditors and even the wider community and competitors.