Foreign Relations and Securing the Succession

Question 1

What did Henry’s early foreign policy demonstrate?

Answer 1

His enthusiasm to win military glory and make England a major player in international affairs - personally ambitious and believed he had a right to the French crown

Question 2

What did Henry do in 1510 (FP)?

Answer 2

Sent to Archbishop of York to Rome to persuade Pope, Julius II to enter an alliance against the French
This led to an alliance (The Holy League) with Spain, the HRE, Venice and the papacy - against France

Question 3

What did Henry do in 1512 (FP)and what was the outcome?

Answer 3

Sent 10,000 soldiers to south-west France - Ferdinand of Spain failed to support England who suffered defeat in Gascony - it achieved nothing and Ferdinand used it as a diversion tactic while he successfully conquered Navarre

Question 4

What did Henry do in 1513 (FP)?

Answer 4

Personally led a force to north-eastern France where he won the ‘Battle of Spurs’ and captured Tournai and Therouanne - it’s significance has been debated but was a stunning victory in propaganda

Question 5

Who tried to invade England in 1513 and what was the outcome?

Answer 5

James IV of Scotland (allied to France) crossed the border with a substantial force - he was defeated by a smaller English force (led by Earl of Surrey) and killed at the Battle of Flodden with many other Scottish nobility

Question 6

Following James IV’ death who ruled Scotland?

Answer 6

Left Scottish throne in hands of infant James V with Queen Margaret (Henry’s sister) as regent but H did little to build on the advantage with Flodden had given him

Question 7

What were the results of the 1512/13 military campaigns?

Answer 7

Huge drain on English finance - war was costly as he was forced to liquidate assets inherited by his father to pay for it
Trouble in Yorkshire (resentment to taxation nearly =another rebellion)
Loss of the French Pension which Henry VII had gained
Insignificant gains in France (Tournai sold back to France in 1519 for less than England had paid to repair its defences after the siege)
Peace with Scotland - lasted until 1542

Question 8

Why was a possible further campaign abandoned in 1514 and what was the outcome?

Answer 8

Maximillian and Ferdinand each made a separate peace with France - it was left to Wolsey to pick up the pieces which he did with considerable skill -recovering the Etaples pension and securing a marriage alliance between H’s younger sister Mary and Louis XI, king of France

Question 9

What was Henry’s foreign policy 1514-1526 affected by?

Answer 9

Despite Henry’s sister (Mary) marrying Louis XII of France in 1514 the French king died 1515 and was succeeded by Francis I (who Henry regarded as both a personal and political rival - meaning he wanted to seek an alliance with Ferdinand)
Death of Ferdinand of Spain 1516 and succession of Charles V as HRE and Spanish king (Charles sought an alliance with the French) changed the balance of power in Europe and affected Henry’s policy

Question 10

How did England become isolated in 1517 and what was its consequence?

Answer 10

Charles V and HRE Maximillian agreed the Treaty of Cambrai with France (agreement ending one phase of the wars between Francis I of France and the Habsburg Holy Roman emperor Charles V; it temporarily confirmed Spanish (Habsburg) hegemony in Italy.)
Allowed Francis the opportunity to undermine Anglo-Scottish relations as the Duke of Albany (heir presumptive to the Scottish throne) was also a French noble - he was appointed as regent to Scottish throne

Question 11

What did Wolsey achieve in terms of FP in 1518 to end England’s isolation?

Answer 11

The Treaty of London - a non-aggression pact signed by England, France, Spain, The HRE and other smaller states (prompted by pope Leo X who wanted a united Christian front against what he saw as the threat of the Ottoman turks) - became a treaty of perpetual peace having originated in peace negotiations between E+F
Wolsey emerged as the leading diplomat in Europe as a result

Question 12

In what ways did the newfound friendship between France and England continue?

Answer 12

England agreed to return Tournai to France and the French again agreed to pay the English a pension to compensate for its loss
The French also agreed to keep Albany out of Scotland, allowing more peaceable relations on the anglo-Scottish border
The French concerned about increased power Spain could exert following the election of Spanish king (Charles) to HRE post - this is what changed French attitude rather than Wolsey’s diplomatic brilliance
Good relationships reinforced when H met Francis of France at the ‘Field of Cloth of Gold’ in 1520 (most extravagant diplomatic encounter of the period)

Question 13

What treaty was negotiated by Wolsey in 1521 and with who after conflict arose between Francis and Charles?

Answer 13

The Treaty of Bruges with Charles V (Secret treaty between Emperor Charles V and Henry VIII providing for a joint invasion of France before March 1523. Did not materialise. English staged campaign (autumn 1523), and with minimal help from Charles got nowhere.)

Question 14

What campaign took place in 1522 (following The Treaty of Bruges and what was the outcome?

Answer 14

English armies invaded northern France but gained little - Parliament reluctant to grant the extraordinary revenue to support the campaign

Question 15

What happened in 1525 in terms of FP and what consequence did it have for Henry?

Answer 15

Charles V defeated the French at the Battle of Pavia(Italy) but refused to help Henry with a joint invasion of Northern France to achieve territorial gains (amicable grant problem also showed lack of public support for this)

Henry changed tactics (once more to pro-French) and supported the League of Cognac with France and the Pope to counterbalance Charles’s power in northern Italy following his victory at Pavia - created problems for Henry with his ‘Great Matter’, complicating foreign policy - this would not only bring down Wolsey but make H an object of suspicion to all of Catholic Europe

Question 16

From 1527 who was dominant in Europe and how did this affect Henry?

Answer 16

Charles V - made his attempts to annul his marriage to Charles’s Auntie (Catherine) difficult.

Question 17

In 1527 what treaty did Henry sign, with who and why?

Answer 17

The failure of Henry to resolve the Great Matter by diplomatic means meant England remained a relatively minor power in Europe so H and Wolsey (in their weak position) signed the Treaty of Amiens with France (an anti-imperial alliance)

Question 18

Why was the general view of Henry VIII and Wolsey’s foreign policy that it was a failure?

Answer 18

It had failed to achieve Henry’s primary goal - conquer the French empire as Henry V had done

Question 19

How much did Henry spend on war vs income?

Answer 19

1511-1525 spent £1.4 million on war while ordinary income was only £110,000

Question 20

What agreement did Henry attempt to come to with France in 1532?

Answer 20

An attempt to pressurise Charles into supporting the marriage annulment but this tactic failed

Question 21

How was Henry’s position weakened in 1538?

Answer 21

Charles and Francis signed the Treaty of Nice followed by the 1539 pact of Toledo where they each agreed not to make a new alliance with England without mutual consent
Pope Paul III deposed Henry and absolved English Catholics from obedience to their ruler

Question 22

What happened in 1539?

Answer 22

Paul III send Cardinal Beaton to Scotland and Cardinal Pole to France to rouse support for a Catholic crusade against Henry but - H more secure than it appeared as both had other priorities and didn’t trust eachother

Henry responded by marrying German Protestant Anne of Cleves seeking an alliance with the protestant league(Schmalkalden) as he believed Charles and F were conspiring to invade England. Also explains his enthusiasm for the 6 articles in 1539 which intended to reassure Catholic opinion in England

This became politically unnecessary and personally unsuitable after relations between Charles and Francis broke down, leaving H in a more secure position

Question 23

Who had governed Ireland on Henry’s behalf and what changed in 1534?

Answer 23

The Earl of Kildare but the dismissal of Kildare led to a major rebellion in 1534 (led by his son Thomas Fitzgerald) that proved difficult to suppress and expensive and the subsequent attempt to bring Ireland more under English control failed as it required royal government through an English-born deputy, supported by military presence so Ireland became an increasing expense to the crown

Question 24

After an invasion of the Pale by two Irish nobles in 1539 was eventually suppressed how did the government attempt to calm Ireland?

Answer 24

Establishing it as a separate kingdom in 1541, imposing English law
Creating countries out of Gaelic lordships
Granting the Irish nobles peerage titles and the same legal protection as the English counterparts

Question 25

What further complicated the situation in Ireland?

Answer 25

The government lacked the resources to follow through with the reforms so there was no residual Irish loyalty to the English crown and after 1534 there were emerging religious differences between England and Ireland - further complicating the relationship

Question 26

What happened with Scotland in 1542?

Answer 26

An invasion of Scotland. Scots forced into military action by being faced with demands they couldn’t meet - this brought heavy defeat for the Scots at the battle of Solway Moss (immediate military success). The death of James V after hearing the news , weakened the Scots (one week old Mary = heir) but Henry failed to mount a full-scale invasion which the Scots would have struggled to repel (main interest = France so mainly looked to diplomatic pressure to secure Scottish objectives while he sought military glory in France, shown by size of army he assembled to invade in 44)

Question 27

What happened in 1543? (Scotland)

Answer 27

Scottish policy became known as the ‘rough wooing’ as H sought to marry Edward and Mary - recieved some support of Scottish regent (Earl of Arran) but there was also suspicion of English intentions
By the Treaty of Greenwich Edward was betrothed to Mary queen of Scots - when Arran deserted the English cause and the Scots refused to ratify this the Earl of Hertford was sent to raid Edinburgh and St Andrews but this achieved little

Question 28

What happened in 1544? (france)

Answer 28

To facilitate the French invasion Henry had agreed an alliance with the emperor , Henry invaded France in 1544 at the head of a large army, desperate for military glory (despite being advised not to by his councillors due to health problems) . H gave little thought to strategy - besieging Montreuil unsuccessfully He captured Boulogne but Charles made a separate peace with Francis I

Question 29

What happened in 1545? (france and Scotland)

Answer 29

Francis I sent troops to Scotland to support an invasion of England. The English were defeated at the Battle of Ancrum Moor but the Scots failed to invade
Another French force landed in the Isle of Wight and Henry’s flagship the Mary Rose sank in the Solent
The French failed to recapture Boulogne and the invasion of northern England never materialised

Question 30

What happened in 1546?

Answer 30

Peace was agreed with England and France as neither side could afford to continue the conflict

Question 31

In what way did Henry pay a high price for his final pursuit of glory in foreign policy?

Answer 31

He was unable to fund the war from extraordinary revenue, he sold much of the crown estate, borrowed large sums and debased coinage - increasing the rate of inflation - a toxic legacy - disaster

Question 32

What was the Succession act of 1534?

Answer 32

Declared Mary (daughter of Henry and Catherine of Aragon) illegitimate 
Stated that the succession would rest with Anne's children (Elizabeth)

Question 33

What was the 1536 succession act?

Answer 33

Following Anne’s execution for Treason it declared Elizabeth (Anne’s daughter) illegitimate
Stated that in the absence of a legitimate heir the king could determine the succession by will or by letters patent (would have allowed Henry to legitimise his illegitimate son Duke of Richmond who was born to his mistress Elizabeth Blount in 1517 but he died in 1536)

Question 34

What was the 1544 succession act and why?

Answer 34

Edward became heir apparent when he was born in 1537
RE-legitimated Mary and Elizabeth
Affirmed Henry’s right to determine the succession by will or letters patent as Henry’s health made it increasingly likely Edward would be a minor when he succeeded so potential uncertainty on Henry’s part about what the succession might entail

Question 35

What did Henry’s will (December 1546) state?

Answer 35

Confirmed the succession arrangements
Stated that if Edward, Mary and Elizabeth died without children the heirs of Henry’s sister Mary should succeed
Set up a regency council to rule on Edward’s behalf (although very little was to be seen of this in E’s reign)

Question 36

What did Henry VIII’s reign begin with in terms of FP?

Answer 36

A conflict of interests between the king and some of his councillors whom he had inherited from his father, His councillors sought a continuation of peace and negotiated a renewal of the Treaty of Etaples in 1510

Question 37

Was there a theme to the foreign policy pursued by Henry and Wolsey 1514-1526?

Answer 37

No - alliances made and just as quickly broken
Three clear points can be made -
1) England remained a relatively minor powers and could not really compete on level terms with major powers of France and Spain
2) H significantly over-estimated English power -Wolsey then had to frame the details of FP based on that false assumption
3) The ‘auld alliance’ between France and Scotland remained strong so when E and F were on amicable terms there was relatively little issues with Anglo-Scottish relations but this worked the other way

Question 38

As by the end of 1514 Henry VIIIhad run out of money to continue a warlike foreign policy - what were the consequences?

Answer 38

He was unable to exploit the weaknesses of Scotland following the death of James IV at the Battle of Flodden
He sought peace with France, the settlement being reinforced by the marriage of his younger sister Mary - to the french king - the marriage was however, short-lived

Question 39

What was controversial about Mary’s (H’s sister) second marriage?

Answer 39

When Louis XII died in Jan 1515 - within weeks Mary remarried the Duke of Suffolk (denied Henry the opportunity to use her for diplomatic purposes) - the king considered himself dishonoured because of the secrecy of the situation and it was sometime before he reconciled his favourite sister and previous closest friend

Question 40

Why was Henry alarmed by Albany and what was the threat minimised by?

Answer 40

Henry saw him as a French agent but threat was minimised by divisions between the Scottish nobility - but Henry showed himself as incapable of exploiting divisions and weaknesses in Scotland

Question 41

What did future conflicts suggest about the Treaty of London but why was this not the case at the time?

Answer 41

Suggested it was meaningless but didn’t appear this way as it was a diplomatic coup for Wolsey and the Pope’s need for a united Christian front meant that he appointed Wolsey as papal legate over England - in 1518 Wolsey = at height of his power and H’s chief minister

Question 42

What was the Field of Cloth of Gold?

Answer 42

Name given to the meeting which took place over more than two weeks in June 1520 (between Henry VIII and Francis I)
Location = France but close to Calais (held by E)
Each king with his advisors set up in a lavish pavilion used for dining and entertainment
Estimated the event cost Henry’s royal treasury about £15,000
In diplomatic terms nothing really achieved here

Question 43

What reasons did Henry have for siding with Charles rather than the French in 1521? (The Treaty of Bruges)

Answer 43

He could improv his relations with the pope, who was anxious to reduce French control over northern Italy
He believed he might gain more territory within France
Parts of the deal entailed a marriage alliance between the emperor and Henry’s young daughter (Mary)

Question 44

What three major consequences did the failure of 1525 have?

Answer 44

Henry (ego bruised) , was obliged to back down
His resentment to the emperor was reinforced when Charles repudiated his marriage contract with Princess Mary
Wolsey’s domestic prestige never really recovered from the episode

Question 45

What did Wolsey attempt to do in 1527 and what was the consequence?

Answer 45

Pressurise the emperor by imposing a trade embargo with the Burgundian lands but Charles’s retaliation created widespread unemployment and social problems in England , forcing Wolsey to back down
Charles power shown in his victory over the French in Battle of Landriano in 1529 and his dominance over the pope as demonstrated by the Peace of Cambrai in the same year - meaning Henry’s attempt to solve his marital issues by diplomacy were doomed to failure - henry had to blame someone else for failure, leading to Wolsey’s downfall

Question 46

What was the Peace of Cambrai in 1529 and what was its significance ?

Answer 46

Required the French to give up their ambitions in Italy
Also reinforced the papacy’s political dependence on the emperor
Made clear an international political context in which the dominant individual was Catherine of Aragon’s nephew (Charles) who made his commitment to family honour very clear

Question 47

What did Henry attempt to do in 1532 and what was the outcome?

Answer 47

Made a fragile alliance with France but France was also in a weak position so they could put little pressure on the emperor - limited usefulness of French alliance shown as it unravelled when Francis sought to establish a marriage alliance between his son Henry ad the Pope’s niece
Henry had little choice but to resolve his great matter by breaking with Rome - though this horrified the Catholic powers, no short-term repercussions as Charles was primarily concerned with threat posed by Ottoman Turks to Christian Europe
H attempted to reinforce his position by making an alliance with the League of Schmalkalden which founded amid mutual distrust

Question 48

For what two reasons was the pressure upon Henry’s position reduced in 1536?

Answer 48

The death of Catherine of Aragon and the execution of Anne Boleyn opened up the possibility of a renewed alliance with the emperor
The renewal of fighting between the emperor and Francis I reduced the potential danger of England’s isolated position

Question 49

In the beginning of his reign did H have many problems with Ireland?

Answer 49

Few concerns as English authorities remained in control of the Pale and the Earl remained the dominant nobleman - he managed successfully for a time to be both an English courtier/servant of the crown and most powerful Gaelic chiefs but after the revival of the Geraldine-Butler feud this became more difficult so the relationship between Kildare and the King broke down Henry’s issue = it was difficult to govern Ireland with Kildare but impossible without him

Question 50

What changed in Henry’s foreign policy in the final years compared to the previous decade?

Answer 50

In the 1530’s the focus on FP had been to minimise the response of foreign powers to the break from Rome
In the 1540’s Henry returned to the aggressive FP which had characterised the early years of his reign, launching attacks on both Scotland and France

Question 51

Why can Henry be criticised for the failure of Scottish FP?

Answer 51

He neglected the opportunity to secure his policy by military force when he had the opportunity in 1542
He failed to heed Sadler’s warnings about Scottish hostility to his intentions
His ordering of Hertford into Scotland was just an act of retaliation - it gave no thought to possible strategic objectives and served to antagonise the Scots further

Question 52

What problems did the succession cause?

Answer 52

Securing it (ideally with male heir) had become an obsession for H - this would ultimately bring about the break from Rome and helped cause rebellion (pilgrimage of grace), also contributing to wider political problems H faced but in the end he couldn’t rule from the grave as Somerset altered the terms of his wills

Question 53

What problems did Henry face with securing the succession?

Answer 53

The failure of Catherine of Aragon to produce a healthy male heir (two sons - one stillborn and one died at seven weeks, with several miscarriage - only M survived) as Catherine went beyond child-bearing age H became convinced he was being punished for marrying Catherine, contrary to Canon law - making essential H should remarry
Married Anne Boleyn in 1533 and she gave birth to princess E and two subsequent miscarriages again made him question if he was receiving divine punishment so Anne was executed for treason - again leaving him with no legitimate heir but 3 illegitimate children

Question 54

What does letters patent mean?

Answer 54

Legal instrument issued by the monarch in the exercise of his or her prerogative powers

Question 55

What solved Henry’s succession problems?

Answer 55

He acquired a legitimate male heir in prince Edward in 1537 and Henry had not married Edwards mother (Jane Seymour) until after the deaths of both Catherine and Anne meaning that Edward’s legitimacy couldn’t be denied by any interpretations of canon law

Question 56

What are some of the theories as to why Henry changed his approach to FP in the 1540’s?

Answer 56

1) his main purpose was the conquest of Scotland
2) Saw H’s policy as primarily about Scotland but saw it as defensive given the threat to English security which Scotland represented in the event of full-scale war v France and the fear that King James V might threaten the English throne were Henry to die while Edward was still young
3) That H was primarily motivated once again by the lure of glory and territorial gains in France so the invasion of Scotland was essential to ensure that the Anglo-Scottish border remained secure once the invasion of France was launched
4) Henry was motivated mainly by his desire to punish his nephew James V for a number of presumed offences - harbouring English rebels, twice marrying French princesses, ignoring pressure from H to break from Rome and failing to turn up for meeting in York

Question 57

Why was the Battle of Pavia in 1525 important for England?

Answer 57

A crucial moment in the recurring conflict of the Italian wars which 1494-1559 which regularly involved conflict with France on one side and Spain + HRE on the other with both sides seeing Italy as their main strategic focus therefore England was just a sideshow
In the battle Francis I was captured and held captive for a time by Charles V