Foreign Policy

Question 1

peace and negotiations and continuation of the war in Vietnam and Cambodia

Answer 1

Nixon had long been a hardline cold warrior in Vietnam. Throughout the 1960s he urged Johnson to escalate insisting that ‘Vietnam is essential to the survival of freedom’. And yet, as president, he withdrew the US from Vietnam

Question 2

why did he withdraw the US from vietname

Answer 2

The Tet Offensive convinced him that America needed to withdraw and hand the conduct of the war over to the South Vietnamese.
The world had changed since Ike had established South Vietnam. Sino-Soviet divisions had destroyed the supposedly monolithic communist bloc and thereby decreased the communist threat
In his inaugural address, Nixon said ‘the greatest honour history can bestow is the title of peacemaker’
He knew that vietnam had ruined Johnsons presidency

Question 3

what did Nixon seek with vietnam

Answer 3

peace with honour that would allow the continued existence of an anti-communist south Vietnam under the leadership of Thieu

Question 4

nixons methods with vietnam

Answer 4

Vietnamisation
Nixon Doctrine
Diplomatic Pressure on the USSR and China
Military pressure on NV till it agreed to his peace terms

Question 5

why was Nixon forced to make concessions concerning vietnam

Answer 5

To quieten down the anti-war protests

Question 6

vietnamisation

Answer 6

Vietnamization was a strategy that aimed to reduce American involvement in the Vietnam War by transferring all military responsibilities to South Vietnam. Use of large scale bombing
Escalate to prepare for peace- bomb aircraft
bases as well as Laos and Cambodia

“Mad man” theory – Kissinger persuaded the
North Vietnamese that Nixon was irrational.

Question 7

nixon doctrine

Answer 7

the belief that america’s Asian allies should fight their own battles

Question 8

1969

Answer 8

Nixon bombed the Ho Chi Minh Trail to sever enemy supply lines and pressure north Vietnam into a peace agreement. Nothing worked, peace was no nearer and despite Nixon’s troop withdrawals millions participated in the anti-war protests of autumn 1969 - the moratorium. In Nov, 250,000 peaceful marchers converged on Washington, and 40,000 walked past the white house each carrying a candle.

Question 9

what divided americans further

Answer 9

The exposure of the massacre of civilians by American soldiers at the South Vietnamese village of My Lai back in 1968 divided Americans further.

Question 10

1970

Answer 10

Nixon appeared to be escalating the war even as he withdrew troops he carpet-bombed North Viet anti-aircraft bases and the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos and Cambodia and sent 30,000 American and south vietnamese soldiers into Cambodia. Peace seemed no closer and the Cambodian offence caused many protests. 50% of Americans polled approved 39% disapproved. Congress threatened to cut off Nixon’s money for war as he became an imperial president

Question 11

1971

Answer 11

Nixon tested Vietnamisation in 1971, 5000 SV troops began the Lam Son offensive in Laos but the communists routed them with the help of new Soviet equipment. Negotiations with NV went badly even though Nixon conceded that NV would not have to withdraw its troops from SV. The only progress Nixon made was in detente, which urged the USSR and China to pressure NV for a compromise

Question 12

1972

Answer 12

Nixon bombed Hanoi while congress threatened to cut off funds. Silent majority backed him. Christmas bombings

Question 13

ways NV was driven towards a settlement

Answer 13

Bombing
American concessions
Sino-soviet pressure
Nixons likely re-election

Question 14

what peace agreement was signed with vietnam and when

Answer 14

Paris Peace Accords 1973

Question 15

Paris Peace Accords 1973

Answer 15

Recognised the independence, sovereignty, unity and territorial integrity of North Vietnam
Ceasefire 27th January 1973
Nixon promised billions to help reconstruct North Vietnam
Thieu to stay in power and Nixon to help maintain South Vietnam
North Vietnamese forces to stay in SV but could not fight or increase troops
Was this peace with honour?

Question 16

was the paris peace accords peace with honour

Answer 16

The settlement was peace with honour in the sense that South Vietnam and Thieu survived, well supplied with US war material. On the other hand - it could be argued that it was not peace with honour in that the settlement said that communist forces could remain in South Vietnam. However, it is doubtful that Nixon could have done any better in the face of pressure from Congress. At least he had withdrawn american troops which benefitted the US

Question 17

the influence of Kissinger on US Policies

Answer 17

Secretary of State for Nixon and Ford
Practice of Realpolitik
Felt that America had wasted time with allying with weak regimes like SV and SK and was more concerned about the national interest
Wanted to negotiate directly with major powers like China and the USSR
No concern about mass bombing of Vietnam and impact of civilians- no clear moral code
Nixon agreed with Kissinger’s policies at first but later fell out. Both saw the bombing in SE Asia as a way to demonstrate that the retreating US still had awesome power and to force NV to agree to let Thieu remain in power. Both also saw equally distasteful policies towards Latin America as essential for US national security

Question 18

latin america

Answer 18

Kissinger feared that the US was losing control in the Western Hemisphere. He and Nixon decided that support for authoritarian governments in Latin America was in the US national interest

Question 19

chile

Answer 19

In 1970, Kissinger and Nixon feared that the socialist Salvador Allender might win the presidential election in Chile. American-owned copper mining companies feared that they might suffer if Allende nationalised industries. Nixon therefore decided that Allende’s regime was not acceptable and granted the CIA $10M to prevent his coming to power or to unseat him if he did. However, Allende was elected and the Nixon administration tried to destabilise his government. Kissinger said Allendes government constituted ‘a challenge to our national interest’ Nixon said he wanted to make the Chilean economy scream and stopped all aid and world bank loans to Chile. Within Chile, the CIA funded media criticism of Allende, opposition parties and strikes by truckers and taxi drivers and encouraged demonstrations by middle-class housewives.

Question 20

chile coup

Answer 20

In Sept 1973, Pinochet led a coup and Allende allegedly killed himself. A democratically elected government had been overthrown. The coup may have succeeded without the US. However, the US Senate investigation chaired by Democrat Senator Frank Church in 1975 concluded that US economic policy under Nixon was a significant factor in Chiles’s economic problems and that the US made massive efforts to destabilise Allende’s government by funding opponents. It found no hard evidence of direct US involvement in the coup but felt the US had stimulated the opposition

Question 21

operation condor

Answer 21

It was a Chilean initiative launched in 1975 by right-wing dictatorships in the Southern Cone of Latin America. It was an integrated intelligence system designed to get rid of socialist and communist influence. The countries involved used political assassinations and kidnapping. It ended in 1983 with the fall of the Argentine dictatorship, it was responsible for 50,000 deaths, large scale torture and the disappearance of thousands

America secretly supported Operation Condor

Question 22

reasons for detente

Answer 22

1. it demonstrated that Nixon was a peace-loving world stateman and helped him win re-election in 1972
2. Kissinger felt that the traditionally idealistic US foreign policy style had often been against America’s national interest. It made sense to improve relations with the communist powers and to use the traditional balance of power diplomacy and play them off against each other. This was particularly important now that US power was in relative decline, due to financial problems, economic problems and Soviet parity
3. The cold war had changed, In the old bipolar world, it seemed that only soviet american relations mattered. In the new multipolar world - with multiple centres of power and influence after the Cuban missile crisis and the rise of China - China and the USSR were enemies, the Western alliance had been deeply divided over the Vietnam War and the US seemed to be losing old friends and in need of new ones. Nixon and K hoped to exploit the Sino-Soviet split to maintain the balance of power in America’s favour
4. Nixon hoped that Moscow and Beijing’s desire for detente would encourage them to press North Vietnam to make peace.

Question 23

china

Answer 23

Sino-American relations were hostile. Nixon hoped China could help counterbalance Soviet power and the belief that it was foolish and dangerous to leave a potential superpower outside the international community, Nixon and K pursued detente with China. For his part, Mao Zedong considered the Soviets China’s greatest enemy and sought to counter them through improved relations with the US. Nixon relaxed restrictions on Sino-American trade during 1969-70. Kissinger went on a secret trip to China. Nixon visited China in February 1972- media sensation-
‘Only Nixon could go to China’ How good?
 Publicity.
 Opened dialogue.
 China helped in Vietnam
deal.
However, tensions remained. China resented Nixon’s detente with the USSR, and close relationship with taiwan

Question 24

3 concerns nixon had with the soviet union

Answer 24

Growing Soviet Power
The stability of Europe
the arms race

Question 25

USSR

Answer 25

Nixon and Kissinger feared growing Soviet military strength. Detente would be a new form of containment and it would help slow down the arms race which would enable cuts in defence expenditure that would help US economic problems. In 1971, the USA, USSR, Britain and France signed the Four-Power Agreement in which the soviets recognised western access rights to west berlin. This agreement signalled that the USA and the USSR recognised the European status quo, this was followed by SALT 1, an anti-ballistic treaty, ended the arms race and froze the soviet and american nuclear missiles. SALT was an important step in nuclear arms control. The soviet tested multiple warheads on a missile just a year later. Détente helped Nixon regain election in 1972. Soviets put pressure on NV. Europe stable. A year after the Arms Race the Soviets began to test missiles warheads again
Arab- Israeli War, 1973- showed limitations of Détente

Question 26

middle east

Answer 26

The Arab-Israeli conflict over the fate of occupied territories could damage Americas standing in the Arab World and undermine detente. In an attempt to resolve the issue he ordered the sec of state, William Rogers to come up with the Rogers Plan. Win - Rogers II, called for a 3 months ceasefire btw Isreal and Egypt and was accepted by both parties who stopped fighting on Aug 7 1970. Sedat - Egyptian President made attempts at truces though with certain conditions. Oct 1973 after Egypt and Syria attacked Israeli forces in the Sinai peninsula, K feared that the rout would force the Soviets to intervene so he proposed that the US and the SU call for an end to fighting and they agreed. They supported Isreal with weapons and they won the war, Israel agreed to Resolution 360 which called for a ceasefire

Question 27

setbacks in the middle east

Answer 27

The initial plan to make peace failed - roger plan - was rejected collectively by the SU, Egypt and Isreal as it called for Isreal to withdraw to the 1949 Armistice. Egpyt was allied with the SU. Nixons eagerness to pursue diplomacy was ruined by the Egypt and Soviet efforts to move missiles closer to the canal. Rogers’s effort to work with Sedat’s attempt at peace was rejected by Israel and received minimal support from Kissinger and Nixon as Nixon didn’t want a crisis in US-Isreali relations before the 1972 presidential elections. Egypt and Syria attacked Israel’s Forces in the Sinai Peninsula, the Soviets supplied them with weapons. The war cost the US a great deal as it brought the US closer to confrontation with the SU than at any point since the Cuban Missile Crisis. US supporting Isreal meant that the Arab Oil producers put an embargo on oil shipments to the US which caused economic recession and a spike in oil prices.