Foreign Policy Flashcards
1951-1964 - Conservatives
What were the three main aims of foreign policy between 1951 to 1964?
- Manage the transition from Empire to Commonwealth
- Strengthen ties between US, North America and Western Europe
- Support foundations of the EEC
Empire
What did the Conservative leaders believe could be achieved concerning the Empire in 1951?
They believed a gradual transition from Empire to Commonwealth could be achieved
What was increasing the pressure for the transition?
Independence movements that were getting harder to control
Give an example of a rebellion against Britain in the Empire that they struggled to deal with. What did this highlight?
1952 - Mau Mau Rebellion - highlighted problems with Britain’s colonial policies
What happened following the string of rebellion movements?
Britain granted several African countries independence
Give an example of the countries that Britain granted independence in the period of 1957 to 1963.
Ghana, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Uganda and Kenya
What monumental speech was made in 1960? What was the shift he highlighted?
Macmillan’s Winds of Change speech - showed a clear shift in policy from trying to retain control over countries in Africa to decolonising and recognising independence movements
What had happened by 1964 concerning the transition?
It had been mostly achieved
Atlantic Alliance
What happened between 1950 and 1953 concerning the US and Britain that strengthened relations?
During the Korean War Britain sent 90,000 troops to help US
What event in 1951 served to weaken the Atlantic Alliance? What did this entail?
The Burgess and Maclean affair - two British governmental officers defected to the USSR which caused concern with the US that secrets could have been leaked to the USSR
What did this cause the US to become with Britain?
They became hesitant to share information to Britain
What significant event happened in 1956? What did this do to the relationship?
Suez crisis - Damaged the relationship between the UK and US and demonstrated the weakness of UK to act without support from US
What was agreed in 1958 between the US and Britain concerning nuclear weapons?
The Mutual Defence Agreement within which the US agreed to share nuclear technology with Britain
What happened during the Cold War in the 1960s between the US and Britain?
The US kept Britain informed about what was going on in the Berlin and Cuban Missile Crisis
What was America keen for Britain to do concerning the EEC in 1961?
The US was keen for Britain to join the EEC as they saw it as a vital link between Europe and America
What did Britain rely on the US for in 1960?
The Polaris missile
Europe
What did the 1950 Schuman Plan propose?
A steel and coal community to repair French and West German industry
Did Britain support these plans? Why?
Yes - Britain believed it would improve the security of Europe
What did the Treaty of Rome 1957 establish?
The European Economic Community (EEC)
Who were the 6 founding members of the EEC?
France, Italy, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Belgium and Germany
Who was elected as the French President in 1958? Who was he keen to protect the EEC from?
Charles de Gaulle - the influence of “les Anglo-Saxons”
What did the countries within the EEC enjoy?
Huge economic growth and industrial output
What did Britain create to try and match the EEC’s growth in 1959? Which countries were involved?
European Free Trade Association (EFTA) - Austria, Denmark, Norway, Portugal, Sweden and Switzerland
Did EFTA achieve the same economic growth as the EEC?
No
What did Britain do as a result in 1961 following the failure of EFTA? What did they hope to achieve by joining?
Britain made its first EEC application - hoped to boost industrial production, increase industrial efficiency and stimulate economic growth
What happened to the application in 1963? Why did this happen?
The French vetoed the application - the French were worried that Britain may try to challenge the French’s leadership and Britain’s alliance with US
1964 - 1970 - Labour
What were Britain’s foreign policy aims for this period?
- Continue decolonisation and reduce military commitments
- “Special Relationship” - make it closer and stronger
- Join the EEC
Empire to Commonwealth
What did Rhodesia issue in 1965? Why?
Their independence from Britain - they weren’t prepared to abide by the “Winds of Change” speech and accept majority rule
What did Wilson try to do concerning Rhodesia?
Get them to revoke their independence and remain apart of the Empire
What happened at the HMS Tiger meeting in 1966?
Wilson and Smith met and seemed to be making progress until Smith went home and went back on every agreement he made
What did Britain impose as a result?
Oil sanctions
What happened to Ian Smith between 1967-1968?
He was growing in strength
How did Rhodesia cope with the restrictions imposed upon them?
They were able to get oil from Mozambique, a Portuguese colony, and South Africa continued to trade with Rhodesia
What was issued in 1967 concerning the “East of Suez”?
A White paper on defence withdrawals
What countries were to lose stationed British troops by 1971? For what purpose?
Aden, Middle East, Malaysia and Singapore - to save money
“Special Relationship”
What happened in 1964 that caused further strain on the relationship between the US and Britain? Why?
The Vietnam War - US wanted military support but Wilson couldn’t afford military involvement and war was extremely unpopular in Britain
Why was Wilson keen to assist the US in the Vietnam War?
So that the US would support Britain for the purpose of regaining the value of the sterling and to avoid devaluation
What did Britain end up doing? What was the US’s response?
Solely providing moral support but no military support - they weren’t pleased
What happened in 1967 concerning the Polaris missile? What was the downside?
Britain remained committed - extremely costly
What did the two powers pledge to?
Upgrading the system in the near future
Europe
What was Labour split over?
Over the need to join the EEC - left saw it as a club for capitalists which would prevent Britain from following socialist policies
What did Wilson prefer to the EEC?
The Atlantic Alliance and Commonwealth
What did Wilson recognise concerning the EEC?
The economic benefits of joining
What happened in 1964 as a result?
Britain made its second application to the EEC
Did Wilson have the cabinet’s backing?
Yes
What were the prospects of joining the EEC? Why?
Poor - Charles de Gaulle and his opposition to Britain
What did Wilson and George Brown do in January 1967?
Tour round the EEC countries to gain support and met de Gaulle in Paris
What happened in November 1967? Why?
De Gaulle vetoed the application - Britain wouldn’t agree to detach itself from the “Special Relationship”
1970-1979 - Conservative (1970-1974) and Labour (1974-1979)
What were the general aims of foreign policy in this period concerning Europe, “Special Relationship” and Communist countries?
- Join EEC and consolidate European position
- Heath less keen to focus on “Special Relationship” - Callaghan saw it as important for holding back Communism during Cold War
- As detente progressed, develop relationship with key Communist countries like the USSR and China
Europe
What application was made in 1971?
The 3rd EEC application
Why did people know that the application would be accepted this time?
- Heath was pro-Europe
- De Gaulle had been replaced by Georges Pompidou who believed that EEC needed Britain as much as Britain needed the EEC
- All detailed arrangements were in place due to Heath’s negotiations in 1962
What happened in 1973 as a result?
Britain joined the EEC
Who helped the Conservative government to win the approval vote to join the EEC in Parliament?
69 rebel Labour MPs
What was held in 1975 concerning the EEC?
A referendum on British membership
What was the result of such referendum?
Voter support was stronger for staying in the EEC due to the economic mess Britain was in at the time - vote won by ratio of more than 2:1
“Special Relationship”
What did Edward Heath not want the US to use Britain as? What did he argue?
A link to Europe - the US should negotiate with the EEC independently
What was Heath more supportive of than Harold Wilson?
US policy in Vietnam
What started in 1971 and continued? How did this make the US feel?
Withdrawal of troops from East of Suez - made them feel like they were being left to deal with global security by themselves
What significant war in 1973 put a strain on the Atlantic Alliance? Why?
The Yom Kippur War - US wanted to use NATO bases to airlift supplies to Israel - Britain refused as they were worried that supplies of oil from Middle East would be put at risk
What happened in 1979 that strengthened the alliance between the US and Britain? Why did this happen?
The replacement of Polaris with Trident - Callaghan’s strong relationship with American President, Jimmy Carter
USSR
What happened during the detente period in the 1970s between the USSR and Britain? What was agreed?
A series of meetings and agreed to limit the build-up of arms
What monumental event happened in 1978 in London? Who was suspected of committing it?
The Markov Affair - Bulgarian defector assassinated in London with a poisonous pellet inside an umbrella - a KGB agent
What event in 1979 virtually brought detente to an end? Why?
The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan - Britain did not want USSR having influence in oil-rich Middle East
China
What did Heath do concerning The People’s Republic of China in 1974? Why was this significant?
He visited PRC after he had left government - he was the first British politician to do so
What was signed in the period of 1974 to 1979 concerning China with the Labour Party?
Trade and diplomatic agreements
What happened in October 1979? What was this the first of?
The Premier Hua Guofeng visited Britain as part of a European tour - first visit to Britain of a Chinese leader since communist revolution
1979-1990 - Conservative
What were the main aims of foreign policy in this period concerning the “Special Relationship”, Europe and Britain’s worldwide power?
- Strengthen the “Special Relationship”, partly to end the Cold War
- To develop stronger ties with Europe without losing independence and national identity
- After invasion of Falklands to show Britain was still a leading world power
“Special Relationship”
What did Thatcher and Reagan develop during their time working together?
A very close relationship which lasted beyond their time in power
What did America allow Britain to do in 1982?
They allowed British forces to use US military base on Ascension Island during Falklands conflict
What did the US do in 1983 which weakened relations?
US invaded Grenada after a Communist coup against Thatcher’s advice
What did Thatcher allow for the US to do in 1983?
She allowed US to base cruise missiles at Greenham Common
What did Thatcher encourage Reagan and Gorbachev to do in 1985 to 1987? What did this lead to?
To engage in a series of summits - the INF Treaty of 1987
What did Thatcher give permission for the US to do in 1986?
For the US to use British air bases to bomb Libya
Europe
What happened in 1984 in response to Thatcher’s constant demands?
They were met and she secured financial rebate from the EEC
What agreement was made in 1986 between Britain and Europe?
Agreement to build the Channel Tunnel
What act was set up in 1986 which set up the European single market, changed the Assembly into a European Parliament, increase the role of European court and mentioned the possibility of future European monetary union?
The Single European Act - highly significant legislation for shaping Europe for the future
What speech did Thatcher give in Bruges in 1988?
- A speech highlighting her concerns about how the Single European Act might limit the influence of individual member states
- She set out her vision for the future of Europe
- She believed the EEC was a trade association between sovereign states and she was opposed to federalism
What was the speech’s impact on European leaders?
It infuriated them and made them question Britain’s commitment to European integration
What group did it create in Britain?
The Bruges Group consisting of Eurosceptic MPs that opposed any European federal state
What was Thatcher’s attitude towards Europe? What did this cause within her government
Mainly negative - caused extreme tension
What did Howe and John Major believe about Thatcher’s distaste towards Europe?
Opposed it - believed that she shouldn’t be backtracking from positions she had previously agreed to
How did the Bruges group back Thatcher and her backtracking?
They argued that the EEC was changing and not Thatcher
What was Thatcher keen for the EEC to do after the collapse of Communism?
Expand to include the new Eastern European states for the purpose of extending trade and ensuring that Communism was defeated but also to try and weaken the power of the European Commission in Brussels
When did Thatcher’s most open anti-Europe sentiments come out entirely?
After she had left office
Falklands War
Where are the Falkland Islands?
300 miles east of South America
Why was it significant to Britain?
Britain had had a colony and naval base there since 1833
What happened to the Falklands by the 1970s? What did the islanders want?
It had lost its importance to Britain and government was prepared to negotiate with Argentina over their future - to remain British
What happened in 1976?
A Military junta took power in Argentina
What was removed from the South Atlantic in 1981? What did this leave Britain with?
HMS Endurance - left SA without British military presence
What did the Argentinians do in response in March 1982?
They sent a force to claim the islands
What event on the 2nd May 1982 ended the possibility of a peaceful agreement between Britain and Argentina?
The sinking of the General Belgrano by a British submarine
What was destroyed by Argentinian forces on the 4th May 1982?
The British ship HMS Sheffield
What happened on the 21st May 1982?
The British task force landed at the Falkland Islands
What did the Argentinians do on the 14th June 1982?
They surrendered
What did Thatcher claim the Falklands War as? Why did she say that it showed Britain as?
A major victory - A major world power that “ceased to be a nation in retreat”
What was the Falklands victory’s impact on the British public?
It had a major psychological impact
What did the Falklands War help Thatcher win?
The 1983 election despite unpopularity with her economic policies
When did diplomatic relations with Argentina reopen?
1989
1990-1997 - Conservative
What were the aims of foreign policy in this period concerning Europe and the UN?
- Build positive and constructive relationship with Europe whilst trying to unify the Conservatives on this issue
- Play key role as a leading partner in United Nations especially in helping manage the transition of Balkan states out of Cold War
Europe
What was happening within the Conservative party surrounding Europe?
There was a sharp divide between Eurosceptics and Europhiles
What did Britain do in July 1990?
Britain entered the Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM)
What did the Maastricht Treaty of 1992 do?
The EEC became the European Union and conditions were set out for a single currency to come into use in 1999
What did the good relationship with European leaders allow for Major to secure?
Opt-outs for Britain on the single currency proposal and Social Chapter which were regulations on working conditions and maximum hours etc
What did the Conservatives favour to the Social Chapter?
They favoured deregulation
What did Rebel MPs do in 1993?
They blocked Major’s attempt to have Parliament ratify the Maastricht Treaty
How did Major win the vote for the treaty being ratified?
By threatening to table a vote of no confidence which would have resulted in Parliament being dissolved and a general election would have occurred, threatening the seats of Conservative MPs
What groups were set up in opposition to Britain’s European involvement?
The Anti-Federalist League (forerunner to UKIP) and Referendum Party were set up in 1993 and 1994
Balkans
What happened in Yugoslavia as a result of it breaking up after the Cold War?
Violence and conflicts
What country declared independence in 1991? What did these cause in the two largest republics of Croatia and Serbia?
Slovenia - violent clashes between the two republics
What did the EU and UN began to do? What did Britain believe?
Major diplomatic efforts to maintain peace - they would play a major role in achieving this
What did Major host in August 1992? What did they decide to do?
A join EU and UN conference in London - to sent a peacekeeping force was sent to the region
What happened in the years of 1992 and 1995? What monumental event did this lead to?
The Bosnian war - the Srebrenica masscare
What did the Screbrenica masscare highlight about the European efforts?
Their ineffectiveness
By 1995 what had Britain persuaded the US and NATO to do?
Intervene in the Balkans, despite their initial reluctance
What did the US do?
Air strikes
What did the US assistance lead to?
A peace conference in Ohio and a peace treaty signed in Paris in December 1995
Gulf War
What did an American-led coalition including Britain and other countries and backed by a UN resolution do after Saddam Hussein sent forces to conquer Kuwait?
They expelled Iraqi forces from Kuwait - however Hussein remained leader of Iraqi
1997-2007 - Labour
What were the main aims of foreign policy in this period?
- UK leading player in Europe
- Strengthen Commonwealth
- Secure reform to make UN more effective
- Use diplomacy to increase respect and goodwill for Britain
- Developing long term strategy instead of managing crisis intervention
- Ethical content to foreign policy
- Make Britain a leading partner in a world community of nations - no more isolation
- “Liberal Interventionism”
Europe
What did Blair develop with European leaders?
Good relationships and high personal standings
What did Britain take a leading role in the negotiations of?
EU expansion and discussions about Treaty of Nice of 2001
What was Blair enthusiastic about?
The possibility of Britain joining the Euro
What European initiatives did Blair take a lead in?
Climate change, world trade and aiming to “make poverty history”
What was Blair at the centre of?
Efforts to develop a common European strategy against global terrorism and tried to make a bridge between Europe and US
What did the inclusion of former Communist states in the EU do to Britain’s influence?
It diluted their influence and changed the EU’s direction
On what issues was there extremely slow progress?
Climate change and aid in Africa
Why was Britain unlikely to join the Euro?
Partly due to Brown’s extensive economic conditions that had to be met
What did Britain’s relationship with America cause?
Controversy in the EU
What did attempts to reform the workings of the EU end in?
A rejection of the British proposed new constitution and a very watered down proposal instead, the Treaty of Lisbon, which was likely to be rejected by member states
What were the areas of conflict in this period?
Yugoslavia, Sierra Leone, Afghanistan and Iraq
Yugoslavia
What happened in 1999?
Serbian attacks on Kosovo
What did Blair persuade President Clinton to do?
Back military action
What happened as a result?
A NATO bombing campaign which was successful
Sierra Leone
What did rebel forces in civil war threaten to do?
To take over the capital, Freetown
What did Britain do in response?
They sent armed forces to evacuate foreigners but they stayed to support UN peacekeeping force and helped bring an end to the civil war a year later
Afghanistan
What did Britain do after 9/11?
They joined US in a military campaign to overthrow Taliban and expel Al-Qaeda
Who were Britain and the US supported by in this campaign?
NATO and UN
What did they establish in Afghanistan?
A new democratic regime
What happened after the US and Britain turned their attention to Iraq?
The Taliban regrouped
Iraq
What were there increasing fears of in 2002?
The threat that Saddam Hussein posed to the West
What did the US believe was occurring in Iraq?
They were developing weapons of mass destruction (WMD) and weren’t co-operating with UN weapons inspectors
What did Britain do?
Despite lack of a UN resolution, Britain supported US in an invasion in March 2003
What did the invasion achieve?
By March 2003 Hussein had been overthrown but troops became bogged down and little was achieved
What did this lead to at home?
Huge protests over war being illegal and a lack of evidence of WMDs
What did these conflicts do to the Atlantic Alliance?
Strengthened it
What did these conflicts do to Britain’s internal reputation and relationships with European countries?
Severely damaged them
