FOM

Question 1

What is an autopsy?

Answer 1

• used to determine cause of death and learn about the disease a person had when they died

Question 2

Reasons for an autopsy

Answer 2

• investigate death that is/may be unnatural
• educational purposes

Question 3

What is coroner?

Answer 3

• determines who died, how, when and where they met their death

Question 4

What are the different types of autopsies?

Answer 4

• coronial
• consented

Question 5

What is a coronial autopsy?

Answer 5

• investigate cause of death
• under jurisdiction of coroner

Question 6

What is a consented autopsy?

Answer 6

• cause of death is known. education, research
• family-consented

Question 7

What is inflammation?

Answer 7

coordinated response by vascularised tissue to injury or presence of micro-organisms

Question 8

What two events occur in inflammation?

Answer 8

• vascular events
  -cellular events

Question 9

What are the cardinal signs of inflammation?

Answer 9

• redness
• swelling
• pain
• heat
• loss of function

Question 10

What comprises the vascular events of inflammation?

Answer 10

• increased blood flow
• increased permeability of endothelium
• protein-rich plasma fluid enters tissue
• consequences of exudate

Question 11

How does blood flow increase to capillaries in inflammation?

Answer 11

• pre-capillary sphincter muscle relaxes increasing blood supply

Question 12

How is exudate formed in inflammation?

Answer 12

• blood plasma passes out of bloodstream into extravascular space through gaps of cells

Question 13

What is consequence of exudate forming in inflammation?

Answer 13

• increased lymphatic flow and collection of oedema fluid (swelling)
• can lead to capacity of local lymphatic vessels being exceeded and plasma collecting in tissues

Question 14

What are the two main parts of cellular events in inflammation?

Answer 14

• adhesion
• emigration

Question 15

How do neutrophils adhere to endothelial cells?

Answer 15

• endothelial cells stimulated to increase number of cells adhesion molecules (transmembrane proteins)
• neutrophils have specific receptors so now are able to adhere to endothelial cell

Question 16

What characterises acute inflammation?

Answer 16

• rapid, short duration
• dilation of small vessels
• increase permeability of microvascular
• emigration of leucocytes from microcirculation

Question 17

What are two most important phagocyte in acute inflammation?

Answer 17

• macrophages: cell-cell interaction, secretion of cytokines, antigen presentation
• neutrophils

Question 18

What is opsonisation?

Answer 18

• immune system coats bacteria with proteins which increase phagocyte affinity towards

Question 19

What two pathways are involved in acute inflammation mechanisms?

Answer 19

• oxygen-dependent
• oxygen-independent

Question 20

Describe the oxygen-independent pathway of acute inflammation

Answer 20

• rely on pre-formed toxic substances e.g. lysosomes
• fuse with phagocytic vacuole and release enzymes into it. phagolysosome

Question 21

Describe the oxygen-dependent pathway of acute inflammation

Answer 21

• variety of highly reactive oxygen species
• uses large amounts of ATP and describe as ‘respiratory burst’. Enzymes involved located in membrane of phagolysosome

Question 22

What characterises chronic inflammation?

Answer 22

• prolonged reaction to stimuli
• inflammation, tissue injury and scarring
• bind to receptors of target cells

Question 23

What are cytokines?

Answer 23

• inflammatory mediators produced or activated at site when required.
• bind to receptors of target cells

Question 24

Describe fibrosis produced by granulation tissue

Answer 24

• endothelial cells, fibroblasts, myofibroblasts and inflammatory cells
• looks red, granular surface
• maturation: new blood supply, increase of collagen, dense fibrous tissue
• function: produce a scar which restores physical integrity of body

Question 25

What is necrosis?

Answer 25

- tissue that has died within an otherwise living organism - used for macroscopic appearance of tissue that's died

Question 26

What is gangrene?

Answer 26

- particular type of necrosis generally meaning discoloured, infected dead tissue

Question 27

Describe gangrene

Answer 27

- infection can spread to other parts of body, gangrenous tissue becomes weak - weakness can cause walls of organs to break down, producing hole or rupture

Question 28

What is dry gangrene?

Answer 28

- tissue dies and extremity takes on mummified appearance - can affect limbs when blood supply is poor

Question 29

What are the different types of necrosis?

Answer 29

- coagulative - liquefactive - caseous - fat - fibrinoid - hemorrhagic

Question 30

What necrosis typically occurs in the brain?

Answer 30

- liquefactive - due to hydrolytic enzyme release

Question 31

What is apoptosis?

Answer 31

- programmed cell death - damage of lesser severity - occurs as part of normal physiology and growth

Question 32

Describe key features of apoptosis

Answer 32

- requires ATP - cell shrinks, nucleus becomes more dense, breaks up and organelles fragment - caspases: initiate by activating executioner caspases in cascade system

Question 33

What do apoptotic bodies express on their outer membrane?

Answer 33

- phosphatidylserine - many cells have receptors for this can so can bind to bodies and phagocytose them

Question 34

What are the mechanisms of apoptosis?

Answer 34

- lack of GF/hormones - ligand-receptor interaction - 3 stages : initiation, execution and disposal

Question 35

What is the difference between ischaemia and hypoxia?

Answer 35

- ischaemia is lack of sufficient blood supply - hypoxia is lack of oxygen in blood

Question 36

What is a granuloma?

Answer 36

- several epitheliod cells aggregated together in a mass - ball of epitheliod macrophages with scattered lymphocytes

Question 37

What is the inflammation where granulomas are found?

Answer 37

- granulomatous inflammation - tends to usually occur when cause of inflammation is difficult for macrophages to digest

Question 38

What is a giant cell?

Answer 38

- macrophages which fuse together. multi-nucleated - appears when more than more macrophage tries to ingest same object resulting in mass of cytoplasm with many nuclei in it

Question 39

What is hypertrophy?

Answer 39

- enlargement of tissue or organ by enlargement of size of cells - functional capacity also increased

Question 40

What is hyperplasia?

Answer 40

- enlargement of tissue/organ by an increase of number of cells - not seen in skeletal/cardiac muscle or nerve cells

Question 41

What is atrophy?

Answer 41

- reduction in mass of tissue/organ by reduction in cell size, number or both - by apoptosis - can be both normal or abnormal

Question 42

What is metaplasia?

Answer 42

- change of one mature tissue into another - benign and reversible process

Question 43

What is the -oma suffix meaning?

Answer 43

- benign tumour

Question 44

What is the carcinoma suffix meaning?

Answer 44

- malignant epithelial tumour

Question 45

What is the -sarcoma suffix meaning?

Answer 45

- malignant non-epithelial tumour - applies to connective tissue and bone

Question 46

What is a neoplasm?

Answer 46

- abnormal mass of tissue, growth of which exceeds and is uncoordinated with that of normal tissue - purposeless proliferation

Question 47

Explain tumour grade

Answer 47

- extent to which tumour resembles tissue of origin - 1-3: well-poorly differentiated

Question 48

What is the neoplasia structure comprised of?

Answer 48

- neoplastic cells (parenchyma) and connective tissue which vascular supply is essential for growth

Question 49

What does the tumour microenvironment (TME) include?

Answer 49

- stromal cells, cancer stem cells, immune cells and vasculature