FOI Information Flashcards
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 1.)
What is the definition of human behavior?
The study of human behavior is an attempt to explain how and why human function the way the do. Human behavior is also defined as the result of attempts to satisfy certain needs. This approach emphasizes human development or the successive phases of growth in which human bevior is characterized by a distinct set of physical, physiological, and behavioral features.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 2.)
Tell me about human needs and behavior.
Human needs and behavior follows Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
SSSSS
S — Shelter, sleep, and food (physiological and biological needs)
This is the need for air, food, water, and maintenace of the human body. If the student is unwell, then little else matters.
S — Safety and security needs
Security needs are bout keeping oneself from harm. If a student does not feel safe, he or she cannot concentrate on learning.
S — Society needs (love and belongingness)
When individuals are physically comfortable and do not feel threatened, they seek to satisfy their social needs of belonging. Instructors should make every effort to help new students feel at ease and to reinforce their decision to pursue a career or hobby in aviation.
S — Self-esteem/self-respect needs
Humans get esteem in two ways: internally or externally. When esteem needs are satisfied, a person feels self-confident and valuable as a person in world. When these needs are frustrated, the person feels inferior, weak, helpless, and worthless.
S — Self-actualization
When all of the foregoing needs are satisfied, then and only then are the needs for self-actualization activated. Maslow describes self-actualization as a person’s need to be and do that which the person was “born to do.” To paraphrase an old Army recruiting slogan, self-actualization is to “be all you can be.”
Self-actualized people are characterized by:
- Being problem-focused.
- Incorporating an ongoing freshness of appreciation of
- life.
- A concern about personal growth.
- The ability to have peak experiences.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 3.)
What are defense mechanisms?
People use these defenses to prevent unacceptable ideas or impulses from entering the conscience. Defense mechanisms soften feelings of failure, alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual cope with reality, and protect one’s self-image.
Defense mechanisms can be biological or psychological. The biological defense mechanism is a physiological response that protects or preserves organisms. For example, when humans experience a danger or a threat, the “fight or flight” response kicks in. Adrenaline and other chemicals are activated and physical symptoms such as rapid heart rate and increased blood pressure occur.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 3.)
What are some common defense mechanism?
DR—FDR—CPR
D — Denial
Denial is a refusal to accept external reality because it is too threatening.
R — Repression
Repression is the defense mechanism whereby a person places uncomfortable thoughts into inaccessible areas of the unconscious mind. Things a person is unable to cope with now are pushed away, to be dealt with at another time, or hopefully never because they faded away on their own accord.
F — Fantasy
Fantasy occurs when a student engages in daydreams about how things should be rather than doing anything about how things are.
D — Displacement
This defense mechanism results in an unconscious shift of emotion, affect, or desire from the original object to a more acceptable, less threatening substitute.
R — Rationalization
Rationalization is a subconscious technique for justifying actions that otherwise would be unacceptable. When true rationalization takes place, individuals sincerely believe in the plausible and acceptable excuses which seem real and justifiable.
C — Compensation
Compensation is a process of psychologically counterbalancing perceived weaknesses by emphasizing strength in other areas. Through compensation, students often attempt to disguise the presence of a weak or undesirable quality by emphasizing a more positive one.
P — Projection
Through projection, an individual places his or her own unacceptable impulses onto someone else.
R — Reaction Formation
In reaction formation a person fakes a belief opposite to the true belief because the true belief causes anxiety. The person feels an urge to do or say something and then actually does or says something that is the opposite of what he or she really wants.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 4, Sub-part 1.)
Describe normal student reactions to stress.
Some people affected by anxiety react appropriately, adequately, and more rapidly than they would in the absence of threat. Many, on the other hand, may freeze and be incapable of doing anything to correct the situation that has caused their anxiety. Others may do things without rational thought or reason.
Student anxiety can be minimized throughout training by emphasizing the benefits and pleasurable experiences that can be derived from flying, rather than by continuously citing the unhappy consequences of faulty performances.
The adrenal gland activates hormones, which prepare the body to meet the threat or to retreat from it—the fight or flight syndrome.
Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training. Many responses are automatic, highlighting the need for proper training in emergency operations prior to an actual emergency. The affected individual thinks rationally, acts rapidly, and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of the surroundings.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 4, Sub-part 2.)
Describe abnormal reactions to stress.
Reactions to stress may produce abnormal responses in some people. With them, response to anxiety or stress may be completely absent or at least inadequate. Their responses may be random or illogical, or they may do more than is called for by the situation.
During flight instruction, instructors are normally the only ones who can observe students when they are under pressure. Instructors, therefore, are in a position to differentiate between safe and unsafe piloting actions. Instructors also may be able to detect potential psychological problems. The following student reactions are indicative of abnormal reactions to stress. None of them provides an absolute indication, but the presence of any of them under conditions of stress is reason for careful instructor evaluation.
- Inappropriate reactions, such as extreme over- cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotions.
- Marked changes in mood on different lessons, such as excellent morale followed by deep depression.
- Severe anger directed toward the flight instructor, service personnel, and others.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 4, Sub-part 3.)
What actions should a flight instructor take regarding seriously abnormal students?
A flight instructor who believes a student may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to refrain from instructing that student. To accomplish this, the following steps are available:
- If an instructor believes that a student may have a disqualifying psychological defect, arrangements should be made for another instructor, who is not acquainted with the student, to conduct an evaluation flight. After the flight, the two instructors should confer to determine whether they agree that further investigation or action is justified.
- The flight instructor’ s primary legal responsibility concerns the decision whether to endorse the student to be competent for solo flight operations, or to make a recommendation for the practical test leading to certification as a pilot. If, after consultation with an unbiased instructor, the instructor believes that the student may have a serious psychological deficiency, such endorsements and recommendations must be withheld.
- In addition, a flight instructor has the personal responsibility of assuring that such a person does not continue flight training or become certificated as a pilot.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 5.)
Explain the basic elements of communication.
Effective communication is an essential element of instruction. An aviation instructor may possess a high level of technical knowledge, but he or she needs to cultivate the ability to communicate effectively in order to share this knowledge with students.
Communication takes place when one person transmits ideas or feelings to another person or group of people. The effectiveness of the communication is measured by the similarity between the idea transmitted and the idea received. The process of communication is composed of three elements:
- Source (sender, speaker, writer, encoder, transmitter, or instructor)
- Symbols used in composing and transmitting the message (words or signs (model prop/desk lamp in Figure 3-1))
- Receiver (listener, reader, decoder, or student)
At its basic level, communication is achieved through symbols, which are simple oral and visual codes. The words in the vocabulary constitute a basic code. Common gestures and facial expressions form another, but words and gestures alone do not communicate ideas. Ideas are communicated only when symbols are combined in meaningful wholes, as in ideas, sentences, paragraphs, speeches, or chapters that mean something to the receiver.
The feedback an instructor is getting from a student needs to be constantly monitored in order to modify the symbols, as required, to optimize communication.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 6.)
Explain barriers to effective communication.
The nature of language and the way it is used often lead to misunderstandings. These misunderstandings can be identified by four barriers to effective communication: lack of common experience, confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object, overuse of abstractions, and interference.
Lack of Common Experience
Lack of common experience between the communicator (instructor) and the receiver (student) is probably the greatest single barrier to effective communication. Communication can be effective only to the extent that the experiences (physical, mental, and emotional) of the people concerned are similar.
Confusion Betwen the Symbol and the Symbolized Object
Confusion between the symbol and the symbolized object results when a word is confused with what it is meant to represent. Although it is obvious that words and the connotations they carry can be different, people sometimes fail to make the distinction.
Overuse of Abstractions
Concrete words or terms refer to objects people can relate directly to their own experiences. Abstract words, on the other hand, stand for ideas that cannot be directly experienced, things that do not call forth mental images in the minds of the students. The word aircraft is an abstract word.
Interference
Interference, or the prevention of a process or activity from being carried out properly, is composed of factors outside the control of the instructor These factors include physiological, environmental, and psychological interference.
Physiological interference is any biological problem that may inhibit symbol reception, such as hearing loss, injury, or physical illness.
Environmental interference is caused by external physical conditions. One example of this is the noise level found in many light aircraft.
Psychological interference is a product of how the instructor and student feel at the time the communication process is occurring. If either instructor or student is not committed to the communication process, communication is impaired. Fear of the situation or mistrust between the instructor and student could severely inhibit the flow of information.
(I. FOI. Task A: Human Behavior and Effective Communication. Part 7.)
Explain how communication skills are developed.
Communication skills must be developed; they do not occur automatically. The ability to effectively communicate stems from experience. The experience of instructional communication begins with role playing during the training to be an instructor, continues during the actual instruction, and is enhanced by additional training.
Instructional Communication
Instruction has taken place when the instructor has explained a particular procedure and subsequently determined that the desired student response has occurred. Instructors perform better when speaking of something they know very well and for which they have a high level of confidence. An instructor’s personal experiences make instruction more valuable than reading the same information in a textbook.
Role Playing
Role playing is a method of learning in which students perform a particular role. In role playing, the learner is provided with a general description of a situation and then applies a new skill or knowledge to perform the role. Experience in instructional communication comes from actually doing it and is learned in the beginning by role playing during the instructor’s initial training.
Listening
Instructors must know something about their students in order to communicate effectively. As discussed earlier, an instructor needs to determine the abilities of the students and understand the students to properly communicate. One way of becoming better acquainted with students is to be a good listener. Instructors can use a number of techniques to become better at listening.
Listening is more than hearing. Most instructors are familiar with the concept that listening is “hearing with comprehension.” When the student hears something being communicated, he or she may or may not comprehend what is being transmitted.
Questioning
Good questioning can determine how well the student understands what is being taught. It also shows the student that the instructor is paying attention and that the instructor is interested in the student’s response. An instructor should ask focused, open-ended questions and avoid closed-ended questions.
Instructional Enhancement
An instructor never stops learning. The more information an instructor knows about a subject, the better the instructor can convey that information and the more confidence the instructor will have.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 1.)
What is learning?
Learning is a change of behavior as a result of experience.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 1.)
Explain learning theory.
Learning theory is a body of principles advocated by psychologists and educators to explain how people acquire skills, knowledge, and attitudes.
Modern learning theories grew out of two concepts of how people learn: behaviorism and cognitive theory.
Behaviorism
Behaviorism is a school of psychology that explains animal and human behavior entirely in terms of observable and measurable responses to stimuli.
Classic behaviorist theory in education stressed a system of rewards and punishment or the “carrot and stick” approach to learning. In modern education circles, behaviorism stresses the importance of having a particular form of behavior positively reinforced by someone (other than the learner) who shapes or controls what is learned rather than no reinforcement or punishment. In aviation training, the instructor provides the reinforcement.
Cognitive Theory
Cognitive theory focuses on what is going on inside the mind. It is more concerned with cognition—knowing, perceiving, problem-solving, decision-making, awareness, and related intellectual activities—than with stimulus and response.
Continued research into cognitive theory has led to theories, such as information processing and constructivism.
Information Processing Theory
Information processing theory uses a computer system as a model for human learning. The human brain processes incoming information, stores and retrieves it, and generates responses to the information. This involves a number of cognitive processes: gathering and representing information (encoding), retaining of information, and retrieving the information when needed.
Constructivism
This theory holds that learners do not acquire knowledge and skills passively but actively build or construct them based on their experiences. As implied by its name, constructivism emphasizes the constructing or building that goes on in a learner’s mind when he or she learns. Therefore, it creates a learner-centered learning environment in which learners assume responsibility for their own learning. According to constructivism, humans construct a unique mental image by combining preexisting information with the information received from sense organs.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 2.)
What is the basis of all learning?
All learning comes from perceptions.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 2.)
Explain perceptions and insight.
All learning comes from perceptions, which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Perception involves more than the reception of stimuli from the five senses; it also involves a person giving meaning to sensations.
Both internal and external factors affect an individual’s ability to perceive: (G-P-E-S-T)
- Physical organism
- Goals and values
- Self-concept
- Time and opportunity
- Element of threat
Physical Organism
The physical organism provides individuals with the perceptual apparatus for sensing the world around them.
Goals and Values
Perceptions depend on one’s values and goals. Every experience and sensation, which is funneled into one’s central nervous system, is colored by the individual’s own beliefs and value structures.
Self-Concept
Self-concept is a powerful determinant in learning. A student’s self-image, described in such terms as “confident” or “insecure,” has a great influence on the total perceptual process.
Time and Opportunity
It takes time and opportunity to perceive. Learning some things depends on other perceptions, which have preceded these learnings, and on the availability of time to sense and relate these new things to the earlier perceptions. Thus, proper sequence and time are necessary. Time and practice are needed to relate the new sensations and experiences associated with stalls in order to develop a perception of the stall.
Element of Threat
The element of threat does not promote effective learning. In fact, fear adversely affects perception by narrowing the perceptual field. Confronted with threat, students tend to limit their attention to the threatening object or condition. The field of vision is reduced, for example, when an individual is frightened and all the perceptual faculties are focused on the thing that has generated fear.
Insight
Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities. To ensure that this occurs, it is essential to keep each student constantly receptive to new experiences and to help the student understand how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task to be learned.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 3.)
Explain how knowledge is acquired.
Part of an aviation instructor’s job is helping students acquire knowledge.
MUC
Memorization
A student’s first attempt to acquire knowledge about a new topic amounts to memorizing facts about steps in a procedure.
Understanding
Understanding, or the ability to notice similarities and make associations between the facts and procedural steps learned, is an important next stage in the knowledge acquisition process. At this stage, the learner begins to organize knowledge in useful ways and a collection of memorized facts gives way to understanding.
Concept Learning
Concept learning is based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share one or more major attributes that set them apart. By grouping information into concepts, humans reduce the complexities of life and create manageable categories. Generalized concepts are more powerful than facts because instead of literally describing one thing, they describe many things at once.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 4.)
What are the six laws of learning?
REEPIR
R — Readiness
E — Effect
E — Exercise
P — Primacy
I — Intensity
R — Recency
Readiness
The basic needs of the learner must be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning. The instructor can do little to motivate the learner if these needs have not been met. This means the learner must want to learn the task being presented and must possess the requisite knowledge and skill.
Effect (emotions)
All learning involves the formation of connections and connections are strengthened or weakened according to the law of effect. Responses to a situation that are followed by satisfaction are strengthened; responses followed by discomfort are weakened.
Exercise
Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage “use it or lose it.”
Primacy
Primacy, the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable impression and underlies the reason an instructor must teach correctly the first time and the student must learn correctly the first time. Relearning is more difficult than initial learning.
Intensity
Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience.
Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed in time from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 5.)
What are the three domains of learning?
The domains of learning are a framework to help understand the major areas of learning and thinking. He first classified them into three large groups called the domains of learning:
- Cognitive (thinking)
- Affective (feeling)
- Psychomotor (doing)
Cognitive
RU-AC
R — Rote Learning
U — Understanding
A — Applications
C — Correlation
The four practical learning levels are rote, understanding, application, and correlation.
Affective“attitude change”
The affective domain addresses a learner’s emotions toward the learning experience and how change one’s emotions toward the learning experice.
Psychomotor Domain
The psychomotor domain is skill based and includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires repetitive practice and is measured in terms of speed, precision, distance, and techniques. While various examples of the psychomotor domain exist, the practical instructional levels for aviation training purposes include observation, imitation, practice, and habit.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 6.)
What are the characteristics of learning?
The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a person’s lifetime. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting views, psychologists generally agree there are many characteristics of learning.
PEMA
P — Purposeful
Each student has specific intentions and goals. Students learn from any activity that tends to further their goals. Their individual needs and attitudes may determine what they learn as much as what the instructor is trying to get them to learn. In the process of learning, the student’s goals are of paramount significance. To be effective, aviation instructors need to find ways to relate new learning to the student’s goals.
E — Through Experience
A person’s knowledge is a result of experience, and no two people have had identical experiences. All learning is by experience, but learning takes place in different forms and in varying degrees of richness and depth.
M — Multifaceted
Students learn much more than expected if they fully exercise their minds and feelings. The learning process may include verbal elements, conceptual elements, perceptual elements, emotional elements, and problem-solving elements all taking place at once. While learning the subject at hand, students may be learning other things as well. This type of learning is sometimes referred to as incidental, but it may have a great impact on the total development of the student.
A — Active Process
The instructor cannot assume that students remember something just because they were in the classroom, shop, or aircraft when the instructor presented the material. For students to learn, they need to react and respond, perhaps outwardly, perhaps only inwardly, emotionally, or intellectually.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 7.)
Explain the parts of the psychomotor domain.
Students make their way from beginner to expert via three stages of skill knowledge acquisition, helping students transition from beginner to expert. The development of any skill acquisition (or the learning process) has three characteristic stages: cognitive, associative, and automaticity.
Cognitive Stage
Since the student has no prior knowledge of flying, the instructor first introduces him or her to a basic skill. The student then memorizes the steps required to perform the skill. Performing the skill at this stage typically requires all the student’s attention; distractions introduced by an instructor often cause performance to deteriorate or stop.
Associative Stage
Practice is necessary in order for the student to learn how to coordinate muscles with visual and tactile senses. As the storage of a skill via practice continues, the student learns to associate individual steps in performance with likely outcomes.
Automatic Response Stage
By this stage, student performance of the skill is rapid and smooth. The student devotes much less deliberate attention to performance, and may be able to carry on a conversation or perform other tasks while performing the skill. The student makes far fewer adjustments during his or her performance and these adjustments tend to be small.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 8.)
Explain the types of practice.
Once a student learns the skill, it is important to continue some practice to improve retention, but the power law of practice raises the question of whether or not there is a point at which continued practice no longer leads to improvement.
Deliberate Practice
In order for a student to gain skill knowledge and learn how to perform the skill on the automatic level, a student must engage in deliberate practice. This practice is aimed at a particular goal. During deliberate practice, the student practices specific areas for improvement and receives specific feedback after practice.
Blocked Practice
Blocked practice is practicing the same drill until the movement becomes automatic. Doing the same task over and over leads to better short-term performance, but poorer long-term learning.
Random Practice
Random practice mixes up the skills to be acquired throughout the practice session. This type of practice leads to better retention because by performing a series of separate skills in a random order, the student starts to recognize the similarities and differences of each skill which makes it more meaningful. The learner also is able to store the skill more effectively in the long-term memory.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 9.)
Explain scenario-based training.
Research and practical experience have demonstrated the usefulness of practicing in realistic scenarios—ones that resemble the environment in which knowledge and skills are later used. Instructors must devise scenarios that allow students to practice what they have learned.
What makes a good scenario? A good scenario:
- Has a clear set of objective.
- Is tailored to the needs of the student.
- Capitalizes on the nuances of the local environment.
(I. FOI. Task B: The Learning Process. Part 10.)
Tell me about errors.
There are two kinds of error: slip and mistake.
Slip
A slip occurs when a person plans to do one thing, but then inadvertently does something else. One of the most common forms of slips is to simply neglect to do something.
Mistake
A mistake occurs when a person plans to do the wrong thing and is successful. Mistakes are sometimes the result of gaps or misconceptions in the
student’s understanding.
Although it is impossible to eliminate errors entirely, there are ways to reduce them:
- learning and practicing
- taking time
- checking for errors
- using reminders
- developing routines
- raising awareness