Flower Adaptations

Question 1

Explain wind pollinated adaptations

Answer 1

1. Flowers often minimal
2. Pollen produced in large quantities
3. Pollen is light and dry
4. Stigma is large and feathery to increase the chance of intercepting pollen.

Question 2

What is a monoecious plant

Answer 2

Those that have male and female flowers on the same plant.

Cucumis sativus (cucumber)

Question 3

What is a dioecious plant?

Answer 3

plants that have male flowers on one plant, female flowers on
another.

Salix spp. Willows; Ilex aquifolium and Hedera helix are a good examples.

Question 4

Define dichogamy

Answer 4

where the stamens and stigma of a flower mature at different
times. Done to protect from self pollination.

Question 5

Define Protandry

Answer 5

where the stamens ripen, produce and release pollen before the stigma of the flower is mature and ready to accept pollen.

Protect from self pollination.

Question 6

Define Protogyny

Answer 6

when the stigma matures first and is pollinated before the flower produces its own pollen.

Question 7

What colour do bees and insects see?

Answer 7

Ultra-violet. Often see flower markings which point towards the center of the flower where the nectar will be.

Question 8

What colour do birds see?

Answer 8

Birds respond to red light – red or orange tubular flowers are nearly always bird-pollinated.

there are no European birds which suck nectar, there are no flowers like this in the European flora! South African Kniphofia and many American Salvia however
have orange and red tubular flowers; in Europe they are pollinated by larger solitary bees such as bumble bees.

Question 9

Small cluster flowers attract which pollinator?

Answer 9

honeybees and butterflies

Question 10

Large flowers, often with bilateral symmetry attract what pollinators?

Answer 10

Solitary bees

Question 11

What flowers have mechanisms that need to be opened? And who is able to open them?

Answer 11

Antirrhinum (snapdragons)

Large bees that have the muscle power to open them.

Question 12

What environments do plants struggle to get pollinated?

Answer 12

Woodland shade.

Question 13

How do woodland shade plants pollinate?

Answer 13

Vegetative spread rather than pollination.

Question 14

How do many alpine plants pollinate?

Answer 14

Showy very bright flowers to stand out.

Gentiana verna

Question 15

What pollinators are not attracted by scent?

Answer 15

BIRDS. Poor sense of smell

Question 16

What time of year is scent more important?

Answer 16

Early in the year when flowers are few.

Hamamelis and Sarcococca spp. attract pollinators from afar.

Question 17

What are nectaries?

Answer 17

Glands, usually at the base of a flower, which secretes (nectar) a sugar solution which has evolved to attract and reward pollinators.

Many flowers, incl. roses do NOT produce nectar.

Question 18

What enhances pollination?

Answer 18

Bright coloured, simple, open flowers to attract and offer access to pollinating insects, (Cosmos bipinnatus), grasses have protruding stamens and feathery stigmas. These release pollen into the wind, and filter pollen out of the air (grasses)

Question 19

Link pollen characteristics to vectors of pollination:

Answer 19

Pollen grain structure is linked to the vector of pollination:
Wind: Lightweight, and plentiful Insect: sticky to adhere to the insect

Question 20

How do plants encourage cross-pollination?

Answer 20

Some plants have mechanisms within the floral structure to ensure cross pollination, for example pin and thrum-eyed Primula vulgaris, floral parts can mature at different times to reduce the possibility of
self-pollination, some plants have male and female flowers on separate plants.

Question 21

How can we support pollinators?

Answer 21

include the use of large, simple flowers (Cosmos bipinnatus) or those that have inflorescences that flower over a longer period
of time, (Phacelia tanacetifolia).

Question 22

Define pollinator?

Answer 22

Anything that helps carry pollen from the male part of the flower (stamen) to the female part of the same or another flower (stigma)

Pollinators include: bees, butterflies, lady birds, beetles, hoverflies, moths, wasps, ants, flies, bats, and sometimes humans and pets can pollinate.

Question 23

Describe the characteristics of a wind-pollinated flower for each of these structures:

Answer 23

a. PETAL: The plant is not trying to attract pollinators therefore petals are often non-descript or have no colour. They are insignificant.
b. STIGMA: The stigma often is longer than an insect pollinated flower and is sticky to intercept the pollen as it floats by.
c. POLLEN: In order to blow in the wind, the pollen is very feathery and light weight to blow farther afield. Additionally, there is a substantial amount of pollen to spread in order to reach the other plants.

MODEL:

• petal - minimal, insignificant
• stigma - large, prominent, sticky, to maximise interception and capture
  of pollen floating by on the wind
• pollen- light, dry, produced in very large quantities, to maximise
  chances of it blowing through the air.

Question 24

What is a hermaphrodite flower?

Answer 24

A hermaphrodite flower is one that has both the male/female sexual organs on the same flower. An example would be Centaurea cyanus.

MODEL:
A hermaphrodite flower includes both male and female parts, e.g. Rosa
canina

Question 25

What plant types are likely to be visited by bees and other pollinators in early spring?

Answer 25

Bulbs such as Crocus sativa, trees and some shrubs. Examples: Viburnum tinus, Salix spp and Lonicera x purpusii. ALSO early perennials such as Hellebores

MODEL:
Anything which flowers is likely to be visited. Some in particular have very
early flowers like Hamamelis species or Viburnum tinus. Bulbs, e.g. Narcissus varieties, early perennials like Primula vulgaris, Helleborus x orientalis. Bees are not just foraging for nectar, but pollen as well, so wind-pollinated trees like Salix spp. will be visited.

Question 26

If you are planting a dioecious tree in order to get fruit, what would you need to ensure?

Answer 26

a. A dioecious tree is either male or female. In order to get fruit you would need to plant another tree of the opposite sex nearby. Example:
Ginkgo biloba

b. The plant should be placed within a reasonable distance for the two trees to cross pollinate. You need both trees of an Ilex aquifolium in order for the female tree to produce the beautiful red berries.

MODEL:
Dioecious plants have male and female flowers on separate plants, so they are effectively male and female plants. Females will be wanted for the fruit but
there will be some males needed as well, in order to fertilise them.

Question 27

Orchids and asters are very different flowers. Describe briefly how they are different, and how they interact with pollinating insects.

Answer 27

a. Orchids are epiphytic plants that have developed to attract specific pollinators. The orchid has placed the stigma and stamen in exactly the right place for the pollinator to brush past the stamen and deposit the pollen on the stigma. This form of pollination is very precise and accurate.
b. Asters have disc florets which contain thousands of flowers, usually bright yellow, which attract pollinators. As there are so many anthers on one flower a pollinator can capture much more pollen and distribute it. This form of pollination is haphazard and allows for plenty of wasted pollen.

MODEL:
Orchids have complex flowers that have evolved to very precisely deposit
pollen on pollinating insects, so that when they next visit a flower, the pollen can be picked up that flower’s stigma. Asters have composite flower heads, with many very small flowers packed together, so pollinating insects can visit
multiple flowers without moving very far; pollination is however much more
haphazard with most pollen being ‘wasted’.

Question 28

Imagine that you have been asked to plant a mixed border for a client who wants to maximize its value to pollinators for as much of the year as possible. What will your basic principles be? List some of the plant types you will want to include. How might you plant to ensure pollinators are supported over the entire year? How might you communicate the plan to the client?

Answer 28

a. Basic principle: Diversity of flowers and plants is important to attract as many different pollinators as possible. In addition, choosing flowers that bloom at different times of the year, so it continues through all seasons is best, so pollinators have food all year.
b. List of possible plants:
i. Early spring: Jan-March: bulbs such as the Crocus spp., Helleborus x hybridus and the climber Clematis cirrhosa would be good choices for the showy, nectar and pollen rich food for pollinators.
ii. Spring: March-May: flowering fruit trees such as Prunus spp. or Malus spp. which puts on a very showy but short season and provides a compact area with many flowers for pollination. Herbaceous perennials such as Primula vulgaris or Euphorbia characias would be good choices as they will break dormancy, grow and flower sometime between March and May. Additionally, planting Ilex aquifolium might be a good choice as it produces inconspicuous flowers in the spring but provides red berries for the winter.
iii. Summer: May-August: This is the best time for showy meadow flowers, vegetables and fruits. Plants such as Achillea millefolium and the Allium spp. would be beautiful perennials with very different flower shapes. Dotting in between these showy herbaceous perennials could be some annuals such as: Centaurea cyanus and Eschscholzia californica which will punctuate the garden with bright colours that attract pollinators. Pollinators also happen to love our summer growing vegetables so planting the flowers in between the vegetables will help pollinate them – producing a larger crop.
iv. Autumn: Sept-Nov: Large showy flowers such as Helianthus annus, Chrysanthemums and the Dahlia spp. would provide autumn beauty. In addition, Autumn is the time of senescence for most summer flowers. The seed heads are not only good food for pollinators, including birds, but can also be showy. Planting grasses such as Stipa gigantea can add beauty to the garden and the feathery seed heads in the autumn are stunning.
v. Winter: Nov-Feb: During the winter months the seed heads from the summer and fall plants will provide food. The Ilex aquifolium will provide a wealth of food with its showy red berries, but also habitat for them to overwinter.
c. To communicate the above listing with the client I would explain that pollinators need food and habitat all year round, not just the summer months. Additionally, I would mention that a diversity of floral types and shapes would support a larger group of pollinators and their needs so having different flower shapes, sizes, colours and blooming times, senescence periods as well as leaving the seed heads on all the plants until the next spring would be important. Flowers that have gone to seed have a beauty, especially when you include spikes, umbels and globe shapes. Variety is the spice of life!

MODEL:
A mixed border is a great opportunity to bring together a wide range of
plants that will not just look good but support pollinators over as long a
period as possible and with as near to 100% continuity of flower – which
should be the two underlying principles. Starting early in the year, I would
propose some early-flowering shrubs, bulbs and perennials, with perennials
dominating in the summer, and indeed right up into late autumn. I would
make a calendar chart, using either a paper chart or a spreadsheet to try to
show what will be flowering when. This will enable me to identify gaps, for example, July-August, when there can be a drop-off in perennial flowering,
and therefore to find additional species to ensure that there is a continuity of supply for pollinators. Such a calendar will also enable me to communicate to
the client the range of interest through the year, as well as how effectively the new planting will support pollinators.

Question 29

List Flower adaptations

Answer 29

Arrangement of flowers
When they flower
Petals (bright/reduced)
Scent
Nectar
Hermaphrodite
Monoeicious
Dioecious
Quality and Quantity of pollen

Question 30

Why do flowers adapt, what are the advantages?

Answer 30

Enhance pollination
Link pollen characteristic to vector
Favours X pollination

Question 31

List 3 pollinator mechanisms?

Answer 31

1. Highly evolved - specific (Orchids)
2. Multiple small flowers (disc floret) DAISIES
3. Scattering - wind pollinated (MAPLES)

Question 32

Points when it comes to planting design times

Answer 32

1. Plants to support pollination
2. biodiversity
3. importance of pollinating crops
4. Importance of cross pollination
5. Grow for our enjoyment

Question 33

How has garden design changed? What is the modern style?

Answer 33

Sustainability
Environmentally friendly
Naturalistic
New perennial movement in naturalistic planting in form and structure

Question 34

What flowers flower at different times

Answer 34

Different categories of plants flower at diff times.

EARLY: bulbs/trees/small perrenials: MAX SEED PRODUCTION

SPRING: Perennials from spring-summer. Mid summer gap. Late summer and fall.

ANNUALS: SUMMER

Question 35

What do different species of flowers provide?

Answer 35

Pollinators
Interest throughout year

Question 36

What is more important than “bee friendly” plants?

Answer 36

CONTINUITY
Biodiversity.
Varieties throughout the year

Question 37

Bees with nectar and pollen?

Answer 37

Bees get nectar and pollen.

Pollen is a high protein food source for bee larvae.

Pollen & Nectar vary greatly, so diversity important.

Even wind pollinated plants are enjoyed bees: WILLOWS.

Question 38

How does scent work?

Answer 38

Pollinators are attracted to smell. Early winter there are fewer plants in flower, but those that are often have strong scent for polls to find from afar.

Viburnum

Question 39

Answer 39

CYME
Growth determinate
Main axis flower at tip, then lateral flowers
Central flower opens first then the sides.

EXAMPLE: Aquilegia alpina

Question 40

Capitulum

Answer 40

Tech. term for daisy type
Ray florets attract pollen to the disc florets.
Dense mass which allows ample pollen.
Efficient but not great for solitary bees as they need variety.
Good for honey bees and butterflies.

Leucanthemum x superbum (shasta daisy)

Centauria scabiosa

Question 41

Verticillaster

Answer 41

Whorls of flowers in rings and intervals up stem.

Lower rings open first.
This is a raceme but very distinctive and has good visual impact.

Tip continues to grow, producing more whorls.

Mint family: Laminaceae.
Phlomis russeliana.

Great seed heads.

Question 42

Why do flowers have specific flowering time?

Answer 42

Attract the right pollinator
Amount of time needed to form a viable seed.

Witch Hazel (Hamamelis spp.) flower opens early to monopolize (dangerous as it may be too cold for poll).

Flowering cherry (Prunus serrulata) showy but short season.

Question 43

Why have flowers adapted with inflorescene

Answer 43

How flower arranged which is adapted to the environment to get more pollination.

Question 44

Answer 44

Corymb
Modified raceme
Pedicil grows different amounts to reach same level

Pollinator lands and moves more easily around flower head with minimal effort.

Question 45

Answer 45

Umbel
all pedicils from same oint.
Can be ball shaped like agapanthus or Elder (Sambucus nigra)
Structurally pretty for planting and seeds

Question 46

Answer 46

Compound Umbel
Multiple umbels
Peduncles arise from same point.
Not all flowers open at same time therefore attracts pollinators over a longer period.

Common in Apiaceae family; Wild, most biennials or short lived perenials

Achillea filipendulina (Perr)
Angelica gigas (BIennial)

Question 47

Answer 47

PANICLE
branched racemes
Continually growing at tips producing more side shoots of flowers.
Often soft and fuzzy appearance

Astilbes chinensis (summer flower)
Miscanthus sinensis (grass)

Question 48

Answer 48

Disc Floret
Verticallaster

Question 49

Answer 49

Spike
flowers have stalks of equal length, and the tip of the stem continues to grow and produce more flowers. Flowers open from the bottom up.

Lavandula angustifolia

Question 50

What plants have catkins

Answer 50

many trees or shrubs such as birch, willow, aspen, hickory, sweet chestnut, and sweetfern (Comptonia). In many of these plants, only the male flowers form catkins, and the female flowers are single (hazel, oak), a cone (alder), or other types (mulberry).