Flash cards
Lutheran/Calvinist theology
The theology of Calvinism was developed and advanced by John Calvin and further advanced by his followers, becoming the foundation of the reformed church as well as Presbyterianism.
Lutheranism is another of the major protestant denominations, begun in the sixteenth century as a movement led by Martin Luther, who was a German Augustinian monk and theology professor at the University of Wittenberg in Saxony. Luther’s intent originally was to reform the western Christian church but because of being excommunicated by the Pope, Lutheranism started to develop in various national and territorial churches effectively leading to the disintegration of the organizational unity of western Christendom.
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nationalism(perhaps Romantic to realistic)
Romantic is the form of nationalism in which the state derives its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes, depending on the particular manner of practice, the language, race, culture, religion, and customs of the “nation” in its primal sense of those who were “born” within its culture.
Realism is Realism an artistic movement that rose after 1850 which stated that the world should be viewed realistically. It was closely related to the growing materialistic outlook of society.
Renaissance humanism vs christian humanism
The difference between humanist and Christian humanist in the fifteenth century is that in the renaissance humanism the philosophy was that people are rational beings and it was the movement of educated classes for Europe. The Christian humanist is the philosophy based on Thomas Aquinas stating that human beings can satisfy religion needs from within with advanced thought of freedom.
Machiavelli
was an Italian historian, politician, diplomat, philosopher, humanist, and writer based in Florence during the Renaissance. Most known for writing The Prince.
architecture/art
Patronage of the Arts funded the
- Academia- school for artist to learn how to paint/sculpt/design, sometimes gave out scholarships
* this brought many people to Florence - Neo-Platonic Academy- library of collective writings from Greeks and Romans, paid scholars to study the manuscripts
- Construction- funded buildings, paid people to construct
English Reformation and Henry VIII
The English Reformation was a series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Catholic Church.
Henry was also worried that England might be invaded by Spain, the most powerful country in Europe. In 1488 Henry signed a treaty with King Ferdinand of Spain. By this treaty Henry VII agreed that his eldest son, Arthur, should marry King Ferdinand’s daughter, Katherine of Aragon.
Austro-Hungarian nationality problem(Dual Monarchy, pan-Slavism)
The Austro-Hungarian Empire was known as the Dual Monarchy and Pan-Slavism was a movement in the mid-19th century aimed at unity of all the Slavic peoples.
dynastic conflict in 16th century
In the second half of the century, the dynastic struggles continued and the characters of many of the emerging nations of Europe were formed. Henry VIII of England was eventually succeeded by Elizabeth, perhaps England’s greatest monarch. Her age was one of genius, exploration, and growing national pride. Charles V divided his empire between his son Philip II, who received Spain and the Netherlands, and his brother Ferdinand, who received the eastern territories (Austria/Hungary) and the imperial title. Philip II was the most powerful monarch of the age, controlling an empire that stretched completely around the world. The mind-boggling riches of the New World were his, and for the most part they were spent making war to enforce Catholicism in the Netherlands and elsewhere. By the end of the century, Spain had declared bankruptcy twice.
The untimely death of François Ier ‘s son, Henri II, in 1559, saw the social and political consensus in France dissolve under the forces of the Reformation, dynastic rivalry, and economic pressure. The second half of the century was consumed with the Wars of Religion, which were as much a political and civil conflict as a religious one. The young sons of Catherine de’ Medici came successively to the throne, and the last of them, Henri III, was assassinated in 1589. The first of the Bourbon dynasty, Henri IV, acceded to the throne, but as a Protestant his claim was hotly contested. Throughout the ‘90’s he has been fighting the forces of the Catholic League, backed by Spain, to win control of the country. He converted to Catholicism in 1593, finally entered Paris in 1594. Internal League opposition began to wind down in the mid-90s, but as of 1596 Spain is actively at war with France and in the spring captured Calais, where we live.
National Socialist Ideology
Nazism, or National Socialism in full is the ideology and practice associated with the 20th-century German Nazi Party and state as well as other related far-right groups. Their ideals were based upon racism/discrimination for those who weren’t Aryan.
Heliocentric vs geocentric views of universe
Heliocentric = sun is the center geocentric = earth is the center
women’s roles and how changed
paid for art, sometimes were artists
Adam Smith and Liberalism
Smith was both
(i) the explainer and advocate of liberal capitalism, and
(ii) the forerunner of the critique of capitalism in Marx (through, inter alia, the labour theory of value).
Economic liberalism arose in response to mercantilism and feudalism. Today, economic liberalism is also generally considered to be opposed to non-capitalist economic orders, such as socialism, market socialism and planned economies.
Revolutions of 1830 & 1848
It was during the “July Days” of 1830 that a Bourbon monarch, Charles X, was overthrown and replaced by another king, Louis-Philippe d’Orléans. But the French example was followed in many parts of Europe in the same year. These all failed, with the exception of Belgium, which managed to obtain its independence from the Dutch in 1830. In Poland, Italy and Germany the nationalist and liberal revolts were mercilessly crushed.
1848 was another year of revolutions in Europe. Once again they were sparked off by a revolution in Paris which overthrew the “July Monarchy” of Louis-Philippe, but very soon revolt had spread to other parts of Europe. Although these nationalist and liberal revolutions all failed, with the exception of the French, Europe would never be the same again.
French politics in 19th century
Main political groups:
Monarchists (also “Royalists”):
those wanting government by a king; after 1830 divided into
Legitimists: divine kingship; only the “legitimate” heir can be king: supported by reactionaries especially nobles
Orleanists: supporters of Louis-Philippe: monarchists: monarchist but not as divine kingship, merely as a good system: supported by conservatives, especially rich bourgeois
Monarchists were dominant in parliament in the initial years of the Third Republic but lost their chance due to Legitimist/Orleanist splits, and later ceased to be significant.
Conservatives:
Broad category (see above), especially those of conservative views willing to consider different systems (Orleanist monarchy, conservative republic, Bonapartist state)
Liberals:
to Left of Orleanists: more emphasis on liberty, wider franchise wanted though not necessarily democracy
Radicals:
following the original republicans of the French Revolution; anticlerical, seeking a democratic Republic but not necessarily socialist.
Socialists:
emphasis on social reform and improved life for workers; seeking reform of the economy on “socialist” lines but often unclear about details; closely associated with radicals in 1848.
Bonapartists:
not very significant until the rise of Napoleon III. Attached to the “myth of Napoleon”; belief that a strong government could deliver some social reform without destabilizing traditional society. Very eclectic. Ceased to be significant after early years of Third Republic
Spanish Civil War
was fought from 17 July 1936 to 1 April 1939 between the Republicans, who were loyal to the established Spanish Republic, and the Nationalists, a rebel group led by General Francisco Franco. The Nationalists prevailed, and Franco ruled Spain for the next 36 years, from 1939 until his death in 1975.
Scientific revolution/method
The scientific revolution was the emergence of modern science during the early modern period, when developments in mathematics, physics, astronomy, biology, medicine, and chemistry transformed views of society and nature.
Council of Trent and Catholic Counter-Reformation
Trent was an ecumenical council of the Catholic Church. It is considered to be one of the Church’s most important councils.
Counter-Reformation was the reform movement of the Roman Catholic Church in the 16th and early 17th centuries considered as a reaction to the Protestant Reformation
Edict of Nantes
The Edict of Nantes, issued on 13 April 1598, by Henry IV of France, granted the Calvinist Protestants of France (also known as Huguenots) substantial rights in a nation still considered essentially Catholic.
Dutch Republic in 17th century
There was continual friction between the Dutch and British, because the Dutch built ships more cheaply, then fished in British waters and delivered their wares to ports more efficiently. Privateers sailing from Dunkirk attacked Dutch fishing ships, but it was only when war with France and England in the second half of the seventeenth century destroyed their markets that the Dutch fishing trade declined.
Dutch vessels were very important in the carrying trade. Western Europe’s major source of timber was the wooded southern shore of the Baltic - the most important port being Danzig. Dutch vessels moved almost all the timber in the seventeenth century, but the English were also concerned in the trade. Both the Dutch and the English depended on Baltic timber for shipbuilding, and the wars and diplomacy with Sweden and Denmark revolved around these countries’ need to guarantee freedom of timber supplies through the Baltic Sound.
The Dutch exploited the the wind-powered saw-mill (invented 1596) to turn timber into lumber more efficiently than their rivals.
The Dutch built ships more cheaply, more quickly and better than did any of their rivals.
16th century economic life
The economy was a prosperous one at the beginning of the century, with even the average peasant able to afford a bit of meat in the stew pot. People were optimistic about the future, they were having larger families and the population was growing. The combination of population pressure and inflation exacerbated by the flow of gold and silver from the New World saw a price rise that cut effective wages in half by about mid-century. Changing economic conditions saw many peasants lose their land as the terms of their tenancy become much less favorable, while land was becoming concentrated in the hands of the elites, especially the rising bourgeousie. Homelessness and vagrancy were on the rise, and towns experienced a sense of crisis trying to deal with the poor. By the end of the century, a peasant almost never saw meat, and many of them had reached such a state of despair about the future that they engaged in widespread revolts. Tensions between the social orders were high on many levels.
mercantilist theory
Mercantilism was an economic theory which believed that the wealthier a nation was,particularly in terms of possession of gold and other precious metals that could be minted into coins,the more powerful it would be in international terms.
This was because a nation could afford to hire more mercenaries for the army (and therefore deny them to an enemy),afford to build more warships,finance more expeditions of discovery and colonization to further boost the nation’s wealth,and provide their diplomats in other countries with more money to bribe government officials and other important people to get them to agree to policies more in favour of that country and against the interests of said country’s rivals.
culture of 1920s
According to one journalist in 1920, Americans were “weary of being noble” after a decade of intense progressive reform, morality, and self-righteousness. The 1920s saw a restless culture, spearheaded by America’s youth rebelling against the moral restrictions of past generations.
development and rise of Prussia
In 1417 the Emperor Sigismund rewarded Frederick of Hohenzollern for his services by granting him sovereignty of the Mark of Brandenburg, a buffer state against the Slavs. The territory was gradually added to, especially in 1618 when the Hohenzollern prince inherited East Prussia.
Until the time of Frederick William, who inherited the throne during the 30 Years War, Brandenburg-Prussia was ravaged by friend and foe alike. As a result, Frederick William decided to build up an adequate army to protect his territories. By the end of his reign, the army numbered some 27 000 soldiers and Brandenburg-Prussia was second only to Austria as the strongest power in Germany.
Frederick III (1688-1713) lacked statesmanship and talent for rigid economy and, as a result, Brandenburg-Prussia slowly regressed but in 1700, during the war of the Spanish Succession, he lent aid to Austria on condition that he be recognised as King. His wish was granted and he become known simply as King in Prussia but the title was soon changed to Frederick I King of Prussia.
Frederick William I (1713-1740) who succeeded him was both eccentric and course but he worked with great energy and continued to centralize the Prussian state, and encouraged commerce and industry. He kept a strict control over the economy and increased the army to 83 000 men, which made it the fourth largest in Europe, although it was in fact not used during his life-time but went into operation during the War of the Austrian Succession (1740- 1748).
The Emperor Charles VI had no son but he tried to ensure that Marie Theresa would succeed him, struggling for that objective for some 20 years until all the important states of Europe had signed the Pragmatic Sanction which guaranteed her succession to the Habsburg claims. Austria, however, had an inadequate army and insufficient finances to defend the claim by force if necessary.
When Charles died in 1740, a number of monarchs cherished claims to parts of the Habsburg territory. Frederick II of Prussia (Frederick the Great) claimed Silesia and marched in without even bothering to declare war. Austria was caught unprepared and watched helpless which encouraged other states to push their claims.
An alliance was quickly formed between France, Spain and Bavaria against Austria, joined later by Saxony and Sardinia, although Britain supported Austria because of British colonial rivalry with France and her interests in Germany.
Frederick the Great was at first bought off by Austria but, with the success of the French and Bavarian forces, he feared that he might end up on the wrong side and so resumed the war. Britain, wishing to concentrate attention of France, forced Marie Theresa to conclude the Treaty of Berlin with Prussia which ceded Silesia to Prussia in 1742.
balance of power politics in 18th century
The balance of power can be simply defined in modern terms as: a doctrine and an arrangement whereby the power of one state (or group of states) is checked by the countervailing power of other states. The balance of power in the eighteenth century had been in existance since at least the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 with France as the most important actor locked in a cycle of wars with Britain and Austria. However after the seven years war the balance of power became more destructive to itself destroying actors it was supposed to protect and in the process destroying a vital part of the system. Schroeder’s book The Transformation of European Politics 1763-1848 is to show the change from a destructive balance of power system that would eventually destroy itself to a constructive system of negotiation and peace rather than belligerence and war.
social life on eve of French Revolution
On the eve of the Revolution there were numerous factors (political, economic, social, and intellectual) which contributed to instabilities in the French state and society at large. Those viewing these instabilities from today’s perspective must remember that the French men and women living in the late eighteenth century did not know that the Revolution was going to occur.
population and demographic development in any period
In general, birth and death rates were lower in Northwest Europe than in Eastern Europe.
People here had developed a culture of marrying late but also maintaining high rates of fertility within marriage, especially in France, which had the region’s lowest population growth.
This kept population growth below its biological capacity.
Combined with comparatively lower death rates, Northwestern Europe was a lower pressure demographic regime.
It was here that also saw the initial major emigration to the New World before such migrations affected Eastern Europe.
This helped relieve the pressure of rising populations.
The agricultural revolution in Britain in the 17th century that preceded the Industrial Revolution allowed long-term population growth to be more sustainable and prevented a “Malthusian adjustment” toward lower wages as the Industrial Revolution got underway.
As the Industrial Revolution was getting underway in Britain, it is easy to intuitively think that human capital became more valuable and parents invested more in formal education.
Even more, that they had fewer kids so they could invest more in the ones they had.
However, historical data shows that formal education was less valuable than artisanal skills and the skill of discipline. The industrial world at first did not need formally educated people.
It more strongly needed skilled and disciplined workers to operate machinery, creating a premium for artisanal skills that Britain was well positioned to meet with its strong history of apprenticed labor.
enlightened despots of the 18th century
Frederick II (the Great), Peter I (the Great), Catherine II (the Great), Maria Theresa, Joseph II, and Leopold II.
trade unions/anarchism/worker response in late 19th
revolts occurred
Romanticism
a movement in the arts and literature that originated in the late 18th century, emphasizing inspiration, subjectivity, and the primacy of the individual.
Treaty of Versailles
was one of the peace treaties at the end of World War I. It ended the state of war between Germany and the Allied Powers. It was signed on 28 June 1919, exactly five years after the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand.
Napoleon’s empire and its impact
Politically, France had suffered a full decade of revolutionary turmoil by 1799, making the government unstable and corrupt. Church policies were unpopular, especially since they had triggered rampant inflation. People were sick of this turmoil and longed for a more stable government that would make their lives more secure. Therefore, the interplay of military innovations that made Napoleon a national hero and the longing for a strong, secure government that Napoleon promised led to his seizure of power in 1799. Further military victories, once again against the Austrians in Italy allowed Napoleon to consolidate his hold on power and declare himself emperor of France in 1804.
Reign of Terror and Robespierre
a period of remorseless repression or bloodshed, in particular Reign of Terror, the period of the Terror during the French Revolution
Robespierre was a French revolutionary. Leader of the Jacobins and architect of the Reign of Terror, he was known as an austere and incorruptible man. His laws permitting the confiscation of property and arrest of suspected traitors, many of whom were guillotined, led to his own arrest and execution without trial.
various treaties(esp. of 17th/18th centuries)
Treaty of Westphalia, The Treaty of Münster, The Treaty of Osnabrück, Treaty of Watertown
urban life in the 19th century
Between 1880 and 1900, cities in the United States grew at a dramatic rate. Owing most of their population growth to the expansion of industry, U.S. cities grew by about 15 million people in the two decades before 1900. Many of those who helped account for the population growth of cities were immigrants arriving from around the world. A steady stream of people from rural America also migrated to the cities during this period. Between 1880 and 1890, almost 40 percent of the townships in the United States lost population because of migration.
Metternich and post-1815 diplomacy(“Concert of Europe”)
The 33 years after the end of the Napoleonic Wars are called in Austria—and to some extent in all of Europe—the Age of Metternich. The chief characteristics of this age are the onset of the Industrial Revolution, an intensification of social problems brought on by economic cycles of boom and bust, an increasingly mobile population, more demands for popular participation in government, and the rising tide of nationalism, all watched over by governments intent upon preserving the social, political, and international status quo.
German politics after 1871
The year 1871 marked the beginning of the German Empire under the Prussian crown. An empire in name, Germany was actually administered by its chancellor Otto von Bismarck, a landed aristocrat (or, Junker) from east Prussia. Though Germany maintained universal manhood suffrage, the Reichstag, the house of Parliament in the German Empire, held only very restricted powers of legislation. Most power remained with Bismarck himself.
French politics in 16th/17th century
Louis XVI sucked..
accomplishments/actions of early French Revolution
Constitutionalism was accepted, Declarations of Rights had been made three times, Democracy Declared, Liberties declared in writing, Right to Property declared
literacy and spread of printing
Literacy increased. The immediate effect of the printing press was to multiply the output and cut the costs of books. It thus made information available to a much larger segment of the population who were, of course, eager for information of any variety. Libraries could now store greater quantities of information at much lower cost. Printing also facilitated the dissemination and preservation of knowledge in standardized form – this was most important in the advance of science, technology and scholarship. The printing press certainly initiated an “information revolution” on par with the Internet today. Printing could and did spread new ideas quickly and with greater impact.
social impact of Industrial Revolution
Industrialization increased material wealth, restructured society, and created important new schools of philosophy. The social impact of industrialization was profound. For the first time since the Neolithic Revolution, people worked outside of the local environment of their homes. They arose every morning and traveled to their place of employment. This was most often in a workplace known as a factory. The new machinery of the Industrial Revolution was very large and sometimes required acres of floor space to hold the number of machines needed to keep up with consumer demand.
