First test Flashcards
Development
is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the life span.
Resilience
is exemplified by children who develop confidence in their abilities despite serious obstacles.
Differential susceptibility
Some children are more vulnerable to the adverse effects of negative development experiences than others
Biological processes
produce changes in an individual’s physical nature.
Examples: height, weight, and motor skill changes.
Cognitive processes
involve changes in an individual’s thought, intelligence, and language.
Examples: two-word sentences and solving a puzzle.
Socioemotional processes
involve changes in an individual’s relationships with other people, in emotions, and in personality.
Examples: smiling in response to a parent’s touch.
Prenatal period
the time from conception to birth, roughly nine months.
A single cell grows into a fetus and then a baby.
Infancy
from birth to about 18 to 24 months of age.
Early childhood
the end of infancy to about 5 or 6 years of age; also called the preschool years.
Middle and late childhood
between about 6 and 11 years of age; the elementary school years.
Adolescence
a period of transition from childhood to early adulthood, from about 10 to 12 to about 18 to 19.
*Change does not end here
Nature-nurture
biological inheritance or environmental experiences.
Continuity-discontinuity
whether development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity).
Early-later experience
the degree to which early experiences (especially in infancy) or later experiences are the key determinants of children’s development.
Stability-change
whether traits that are present in an individual at birth remain constant or change throughout the life span.
The scientific method
Conceptualize a process or problem to be studied
Collect research information (data)
Analyze data
Draw conclusions
Theory
coherent set of ideas that helps to explain and to make predictions.
Hypothesis
a specific, testable assumption or prediction.
Sigmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
behaviour is determined by the way we resolve inner conflicts.
Psychoanalytic theories
describe development as primarily unconscious (beyond awareness) and heavily coloured by emotion.
Erik Erikson
Psychoanalytic - we develop in eight psychosocial stages
First four stages - EE
- trust vs mistrust
- autonomy vs shame and doubt
- initiative vs guilt
- industry vs inferiority
Last four stages - EE
- identity vs identity confusion
- intimacy vs isolation
- generativity vs stagnation
- integrity vs despair
Piaget four stages COGNITIVE
- sensorimotor
- preoperational
- concrete operational
- formal operational
Vygotsky
Cognitive- sociocultural cognitive theory that emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development.
Information-processing theory
individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategies about it
Behaviourism
holds that we can study scientifically only what can be directly observed and measured - Pavlov, Skinner, Bandura
Pavlov
Classical conditioning
Skinner
operant conditioning - consequence of behaviour can create change in future behaviour
Social cognitive theory
Bandura - behaviour, cognition and environment
Ethology
behaviour is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution, and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods - Lorenz and Bowlby
Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory
development reflects the influence of five environmental systems (bidirectional).
Naturalistic observation:
Observing real life behaviour - no manipulation
Descriptive research
aims to observe and record behaviour; it cannot prove cause.
Correlation research
aims to describe the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics.
Positive relationship
Variables change in the same direction
Negative relationship
variables change in opposite directions
Correlation is not….
causation
Cross-sectional approach
individuals of different ages are compared at the same point in time.
Longitudinal approach
same individuals are studied over time, usually several years or more.
Chromsomes
contained in the nucleus of each human cell, are threadlike structures made up of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
DNA
contains genes (short segments of dna)
Genetic expression
Collaboration with other genes and the environment determines whether a gene is turned “on” or ”off.”
Fertilization
egg and sperm become zygote - where 23 chromosomes pair with another 23 - XX for females, XY for males
Genotype
all of a persons genetic material
Phenotype
observable physical traits of organism
Dominant-recessive genes principle
in some cases, one gene of a pair is dominant and overrides the potential of the other gene—the recessive gene.
Recessive
recessive has influence when both genes are recessive - most mutations are recessive
polygenically determined
interaction of many genes
Gene-gene interaction studies
focus on the interdependence of two or more genes in influencing characteristics, behaviour, disease, and development.
Sandra Scarr
passive, active and evocative genotype-environment correlations
Passive
Child likes music because of genetic tendencies and environment
Evocative
Genes evoke environmental support - happy child evokes smiles from strangers
Active
Children seek out environments which match their interests
Epigenetic view
development results from ongoing, bidirectional interchange between heredity and environment.
Heredity-environment vs epigenetic
- heredity —> environment
- heredity <—–> environment
Germinal period
First 2 weeks after conception - cell differentiation occurs
Blastocyst
becomes the embryo
Trophoblast - outer layer
provides nutrition and support
Embryonic period
2 to 8 weeks - organogenesis (forming organs), blastocyst is now embryo
Amnion
sac of clear fluid where the embryo floats
umbilical cord
connects baby to placenta
Placenta
tissues where small vessels from mom and baby intertwine
Fetal period
7 months long
Viability
23-24 weeks the baby can survive if born
Neural tube
forms at 18-24 days after conception
Neurogenesis
once neural tube closes, a massive growth of neurons occurs
Neuronal migration
cells moving outward from origin to appropriate locations and regions of brain
anencephaly
highest regions of brain do not form and child dies
Spina bifida
paralysis of the lower limbs
Preventing neural tube defects
mom should take vitamin B and folic acid
Teratogen
any agent that can cause birth defect/ harm
Fist stage of birth
(longest): uterine contractions help baby move from the uterus into the birth canal.
Second stage of birth
baby’s head moves through the cervix and birth canal, and the baby emerges completely
afterbirth - third stage
placenta, umbilical cord, and other membranes are detached and expelled.
Drugs of labour
analgesia: used to relieve pain
anesthesia: blocks sensation or consciousness in area of body
Oxytocin
Cesarean delivery
removal of baby from incision in moms abdomen. Used if baby is in breech position - butt first. Breech births can cause respiratory problems.
Apgar scale
used to assess health of newborns one to five mins after birth
7-10 = good
5 = developmental difficulties
3-0 = emergency
NBAS scale
performed within 24-36 hours. Assess neurological, reflexes and reactions.
NNNS scale
assesses at risk infants
Birth weight
low = 5 1/2 lbs
very low = 3 1/2 lbs
extremely low = under 2 lbs
Preterm infant
Born three weeks or more before full term
Small for date infants
Small for when they are meant to be born.
Preterm and low weight infants
More likely to develop a learning disability, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, sensory issues, or a breathing problem such as asthma.
Very low birth weight is associated with childhood autism.
Kangaroo care
skin to skin contact for an infant. Promotes wight gain and cognitive function and decreases mortality
Massage therapy
increased weight gain due to stimulation of vagus nerve which releases insulin (hormone that absorbs food)
Postpartum period
lasts about six weeks after birth
Postpartum blues vs depression in US
70% have blues, 10% have despression
PP depression in Canada
23% have ppd or anxiety
10% ppd, 5% anxiety and 8% both
Bonding
close connection between mom and baby. Used to be thought you needed immediate skin to skin after birth
Cephalocaudal pattern
Growth looked at as top down - sensory and motor development preceed
Proximodistal pattern
center out growth - growth begins in trunk and then extremities
Menarche
first period for girls
Precocious puberty
very early onset of puberty
Horomones
Chemicals secreted by endocrine glands and carried by bloodstream
Androgens
male sex horomones
estrogens
female sex horomones
Neuroconstructivist view
genes and environment influence brains development
Plasticity
brain can change over time in structure and function
Brain wired by
experiences more than genes
Forebrain, midbrain, hindbrain
forebrain on top and hindbrain on bottom
Frontal, occipital, temporal and parietal lobes
frontal: voluntary movement, emotion, personality
occipital: vision
temporal: hearing, language, memory
parietal: motor control
- hypothalamus
- pituitary gland
- amygdala
- hippocampus
- controls biological drive
- controls hormones
- emotions
- memory and emotion
- cell body/ soma
- dendrites
- axon
- terminal buttons
- myelin sheath
- center of neuron; neurotransmitters manufactured
- fibers that branch out which receive info
- send signals away from cell body
- end of axon - sends signals to a different neuron through synapses (gaps)
- cover of fats and protein on axon - makes signals faster
glial cells
cells which provide support for neurons - wide range of functions
lateralization
specialization of the brains hemispheres
left = language
right = visuospatial functions
EEG
Used to measure brains electrical activity
Myelination
provide axons with myelin sheath - visual pathways myelinated post birth, frontal lobes during adolescence
Pruned
dendrite connections disappear when unused
Grows most rapidly in childhood
brain and head
growth
1. from 3-6 yrs
2. from 6-puberty
- most growth in frontal lobes
- most growth in temporal and parietal lobes
REM sleep
half infants sleep is REM, while only 1/5 for adults
SIDS
sudden infant death syndrome - child dies in sleep for no reason
Major threats to children
car accidents and cancer
Obesity
1-7 Canadian youth are obese
45% eat bad food
Piaget’s theory
children actively construct their own cognitive worlds
Schemes
actions or mental representations that organize knowledge
Assimilation
using existing schemes to incorporate new info
accomodation
develop new schemes or adjust old schemes to fit new info and experiences
organization
grouping schemes into a higher order cognitive system
Equilibration
explains how children shift from one stage of thought to the next. The resolve the conflict and reach a balance
Sensorimotor stage
From birth to 2. Infants understand the world by sensory experiences, physical and motor actions.
Sensorimotor substages
- simple reflexes
- first habits and primarily circular reactions (reproduce events)
- secondary circular reactions (reproduce events because they are pleasurable)
- coordination of secondary circular reactions (intentionality)
- tertiary circular reactions (infant explores new possibilities with objects)
- Object permanence: the understanding that objects continue to exist
Preoperational stage
Child begins to represent the world with words, images, and drawings. 2-7 years.
Preoperational substages
- Symbolic function substage: child gains ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
- Intuitive thought substage: child uses primitive reasoning and wants to know answers tolots of questions.
Animism & egocentrism
Animism: belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities
Egocentrism: inability to distinguish your perspective from someone elses
Centration & conversation
centration: focusing all attention on one characteristic
conservation: alterting appearance of object does not change basic properties.
Concrete operational stage
Child begins to reason logically and perform operations. 7-11 years.
Horizontal decalage
Piagets concept that similar abilities do not appear at the same time within a stage of development
formal operational stage
move beyond concrete experience and think more abstract and logically. Appears between 11-15yrs.
FO stage - adolescent ego
adolescent ego = belief that others are as interested in you as you are yourself
imaginary audience = feeling like your the center of attention
personal fable = sense of personal uniqueness
Evaluating Piagets theory
- underestimated cultural factors
- development stages inconsistent; gradual
- children can be trained to have higher cognitive stages
- children acquire cognitive skills earlier than he thought
- underestimated childrens ability to take another perspective
Core knowledge approach
infants are born with domain specific innate knowledge systems
Violation of expectations methods
when a child looks long at an event that violates their expectation, it means theyre surprised
Neo-piagetians
argue for more emphasis on how children use attention, memory, and strategies to process info
Applying Piaget to education
- take a constructivist approach
-facilitate rather than direct learning - consider childs knowledge
- promote students intellectual health
- make the classroom a setting of discovery
Vygotsky
emphasized the role of social environment in cognitive development
Zone of proximal development - Vygotsky
tasks which are too difficult for child alone, but can be accomplished with assistance.
Scaffolding
changing the level of support throughout teaching session
Vygotsky- private vs inner speech
Private: used for self regulation *child more socially competent when using private speech
Inner: they can act without verbalizing and self talk
Applying Vygotskys theory to development
- Use ZPD to assess child abilities
- look at each child as an individual
- use more skilled peers as teachers
- encourage private speech
- place instruction in a meaningful context
- promote student centered learning
Social constructivist approach
emphasis on social contexts of learning and knowledge through interaction
