Fire Officer Handbook of Tactics Part 1 Flashcards
What is the most basic principle of firefighting
Human life takes precedence over all other concerns
Removing an adult victim via portable ladder requires
At least one person on the ladder and in one in the room with the victim
After _____ minutes without oxygen, victims likely suffer brain damage
Four, any longer, death is nearly certain
More lives have been saved by _______ then all other means
Properly positioned and operated hose lines
When insufficient personnel, perform tasks that
Protect the greatest number of human lives first
What advances in treatment of smoke inhalation make it important that we don’t write off civilians too early
Hydrogen cyanide antidotes and Hyperbaric oxygen therapy
Priority of victim removal
Immediate vicinity of the fire-Directly above the fire-Top floor (work back down)-Below the fire
Search of ___ and ___ from fire floor to roof must be immediate priority
Staircases and connecting public hallways
Victims that may have to be removed immediately, even if not in any immediate danger
Emotionally agitated or threatening to jump
What can reduce or eliminate life hazard
Aggressive coordinated fire attack
Ways to reduce life hazards
Remove victims-Vent to draw fire away-Confine fireUsually the best way is to put the fire out
Apartment door must be kept shut until ____ , then advance hoseline for extinguishment
Occupants clear stairway
Sequence of actions for fire incidents
Locate-Confine-Extinguish
What do you need to know before committing yourself to operations
Precisely where you are going
Last rule for firefighting
Let circumstances dictate procedure
When enough personnel are available to perform engine and ladder functions, they must carry out
a coordinated fire attack
Evaluation of problems and conditions that effect the outcome of a fire. Also includes info gathered during preplanning
Size up
When does a proper size up begin and end
When the alarm is received and until the emergency is under control
If a building (brick/wood joist Type 3 or standard wood frame type 5, not lightweight) has been exposed to heavy fire for ___ or more, it may be too dangerous to enter
20 minutes
List of factors affecting size up
ConstructionOccupancyApparatus/PersonnelLife HazardWater SupplyAuxiliary AppliancesStreet ConditionsWeatherExposuresArea (Height)Location/Extent of FireTimeHeight or Hazmat
Factors that will change life hazard (4)
Time of dayOccupancyLocationExtent of Fire
Best method for dealing with high life hazardsWays to accomplish this (4)
Reduce the hazard long before the incident-Occupancy load restrictions-Improve exit facilities-Fire doors/partitions-(Best method) Wet pipe automatic sprinklers
We should only undertake aggressive tactics in response to
High civilian life hazard
About ___ ff killed per 100,000 residential firesAbout ___ ff killed per 100,000 store fires
416
Large spaces should alert ff to possibility of
truss construction (severe collapse hazard)
Most effective way to recall preplan information
Computer aided dispatch
Ways to convey hazards to incoming crews (4)
Dispatcher can read it to units as part of alert-Flash message on video display terminal-Teletype to each unit-Repeat message over radio channels one minute after initial alarm
Hope is not an effective strategy, you have to
plan for the bad things that could happen
Biggest impact time has on ff
elapsed time since the fire began
One of the key elements of size up is our estimate of
how long the fire has been burning and evaluate structures strength in terms of fire resistance
Key indicator of the likelihood of structural collapse
Elapsed burn time
Most difficult of ff traps to predict
Collapse
When does the 20 minutes start (with regard to collapse potential in a fire in Class 3 or 5 structure)
when the fire has reached flashover and is attacking the structural elements
Fire that has not vented from a single window has not been at flashover for very long, generally under
a minute or two
A fire that has not vented or is only out of one or two windows, is usually confined to one room and has been at flashover for
1 to 5 minutes
Fire venting out on two floors typically means (with regard to time elapsed)
prolonged burning (>10 min) or use of accelerant
A sign of advanced fire is burning through
wooden walls
What can cause fire to attack joists or stair stringers from both the top and bottom simultaneously
liquid accelerants
Most important decision you will make as an IC
ordering crews out
Aggressive attack until first in units begin coming out-a problem with this method is
Air bottle method (Class 3 and 5 only)Lightweight construction
What building materials/characteristics have been proven to collapse with as little as 5 minutes fire exposure (4)
-Plywood I-beams-2x4 gusset plate trusses-composite wood/steel trusses-most class 2 buildings with metal C joists or bar joists
It should be dept policy that fire that has reached flashover stage in these lightweight buildings will only be fought from ___ until ___ and ___
defensive positionsfire is knocked downbuilding can be examined
Unprotected steel can fail in as little as
5 minutes
System where dispatcher keeps track of elapsed time and prompts the IC. Forces the IC to recognize time is passing and evaluate/verbalize progress
Time mark system
Time interval radio reports allow (2)
Superior officers to monitor conditions-units responding on additional alarms to be alerted to potential problems and actions that may be required
Implications/Concerns of construction (4)
Degree of compartmentation-Degree to which building contributes to fire load-Number of hidden voids-(Most important) Ability to resist collapse when threatened by fire
Greater compartmentation results in (3)
slower fire spread-difficulty stretching hoselines-chopped up rooms leading to disorientation
Fire that attacks class 2 buildings does not usually separate connections, instead, the steel
weakens/sags
Building class/type where walls, partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are noncombustible. Designed to withstand the effects of fire for a limited time and prevent its spread
Class/Type 1 - Fire Resistive
Building class/type where walls, partitions, columns, floors, and roofs are noncombustible, but less fire resistance than Class 1. Not designed to withstand effects of fire or prevent spread
Class/Type 2 - Noncombustible
Building class/type with masonry or other noncombustible walls with two hour fire resistance rating
Class/Type 3 - Ordinary (Brick and Wood Joist)
Building class/type where exterior walls are masonry or other noncombustible with two hour fire resistance rating. Interior columns, beams, girders and heavy timber
Class/Type 4 - Heavy Timber
In Class/Type 4 construction, columns must be minimum of ___. Floors and roofs are heavy plank at a minimum of ___ inch. Heavy fire load but excellent ___.
8”x8”3”collapse resistance
In true mill construction, a subset of heavy timber, the lack of ___ makes firefighting less complex than ordinary buildings
hidden voids
Building class/type made of wood or other combustibles. Less prone to collapse than noncombustible, more prone to extension
Class/Type 5 - Wood Frame
Two obvious concerns during size up that indicate the max potential fire area
area and height of building
What can help determine true size of a structure (2)
early reports from roof level -party walls are visible from the roof and can tip off ff to irregular shapes/sizes
What has great influence on the tactics used to control a serious fire
physical location of the fire
Locations that create special firefighting problems…why?-top floor of brick/wood joist-below grade-beyond reach of ladder
void space above the Top floor-lack of horizontal ventilation and entire operation performed in hazardous atmosphere limiting working time-access and exterior ventilation problems
Even if the original call reported fire on a different floor, don’t ___
bypass a floor with smoke without investigating the source
If you encounter a full floor of hot smoke and find no fire, there’s a good chance you are ___.Classic indicator of
Above the fireCellar fire
If all floors are pushing heavy smoke and no visible fire, expect fire to be in the
cellar
If heavy, dirty smoke is pushing out of the chimney, especially during non-heating seasons, look at the ___ right away
cellar
Color of smoke indicating presence of petroleum based product
Black smoke
Larger volumes of black smoke at the roof often signal
involvement of the roofing materials
Light to moderate quantities of black smoke in the basement indicate an
oil burner malfunction
Historically, black smoke from residential means ___, that is no longer reliable due to ___.
accelerantplastics
Type of smoke produced when Class A material-has sufficient oxygen-doesn’t have sufficient oxygen
gray to light brown-large amounts of dark grey or yellow…indicative of backdraft especially if under pressure
Heavy rolling clouds, violently twisting skyward indicate (2)
extremely hot smoke from intense fire-frequently followed by fire igniting through openings where smoke is issuing.
Wispy smoke indicates fire in ___ stage
incipient
Smoke that is settling or hanging in low spots indicates
cold smoke; sprinkled areas or fire that is partially or fully extinguished
FF next priority following life hazard
protection of exposures
At times, the conditions that dictate taking a defensive mode isn’t the building or exposure, it is
a limitation on apparatus/personnel or water supply
Most residential rooms have a fire load of ___ lbs of fuel per sq ftLibraries - ___-___ lbs fuel per sq ft
525-30
Each pound of ordinary combustibles gives off ___ to ___ BTU’s when totally consumed
7,000 to 10,000
Each gallon of water absorbs ___ BTU when heated from, 70 degrees to steam
9275
Water application rates increase roughly ___ with plastics
0.5
___ is advantageous to reducing damage to structural elements as well as aiding in search for victims
Speedy knockdown
The presence and serviceability of ___ deserve high priority in any size-up
auxiliary systems
Two immediate ways to reduce the likelihood of a loss in situations where available water delivery systems aren’t enough to extinguish the fire
Survey area in advance and determine minimum required fire flows and develop adequate water delivery systems to apply it.-(much preferred) ensure automatic sprinklers are installed
OOS auxiliary appliances are often justification for
an extra alarm
Special street conditions like trenches, road construction, or even deep snow may require
special arrangement of a hosebed to allow rapid stretching of hoselines of unusual length
Newer buildings of metal construction add little to nothing to the fire load. The major exception to this statement is
metal deck roof fire (deck heats…raining liquid tar fireballs down on people)
Responsible for the destruction by fire of more buildings than any other constructions related factor
Voids
Poured concrete buildings can act as one-piece structures. Generally, any failure that occurs in them will be
of another material, such as a hung ceiling
Class of structure that is the least stable in terms of collapse
Class 2 Noncombustible
This is usually the primary function of engine companies
Water supply
In theory, 1 gal of water will provide sufficient cooling to quench approx ___ of fuel
5 lbs
Flows of ___ for each ___ sq ft of fire area are sufficient to control fires in areas of light fire loads of ordinary combustibles, provided the area has not been vented
10 gpm for each 100 sq ft
Things that have helped improve the ability to get inside and put out a fire
The use of breathing apparatus and protective clothing, as well as improvement and ventilation techniques and entry methods
Fire progresses through the following three stages
Incipient stageFree-burning stageSmoldering/decaying stage
Characteristics of fire in Incipient stage (3)How to attack? (3)
-fire is still small-heat/smoke conditions are light-fire confined to its original area- extinguisher will often halt and prevent flashover-charge 1 1/2” or 1 3/4” as precaution-attack directly using straight stream or very narrow fog
Characteristics of fire in Free-burning stage (5)How to attack? (2)
-greatly increased in intensity, approaching or past flashover-1300 degree ceiling temp-large volumes of smoke-before attacking, nozzle team must attempt to locate/account for occupants and obtain info from them-stay off knees to avoid burns (duckwalk)-method of attack most often used is COMBINATION ATTACK-open up only when you see flames
In which stage do you find most working fires?
Free-burning stage
A way to obtain a floor layout in a multi story building
Examine the layout of the floor below the fire
Generally, ___ length of hose is sufficient for most homes/apartments
150’
Safe areas where you would stretch dry hose to would be (3)
entrance to fire floor or front door-stairway hall or landing-Top of enclosed stairway for Below grade
Method of attack where you sweep ceiling for 5 to 10 seconds to cool the hot gasses then lower to burning materials
Combination method
Nozzle team should stretch dry hose to a ___ before having the line charged
safe area (or as near to the fire as possible)
In an advanced multi-room fire, nozzle operator should use ___ to move fire farther and farther away. Progressing from ___ to ___ to ___ continuouesly
Z-patternceiling, room, floor
What to do if using a fog stream and getting a lot of heat behind you
Halt advance, switch to straight stream and have one member investigate behind you
Advantages of combination attack (3)
-hitting ceiling first cools gasses near hoseline without creating a lot of steam-by shutting down line when no further fire is visible, you won’t disturb the thermal balance which preserves chances of survival-puts ff inside near seat of fire, best position to accomplish primary goal…save human life
Disadvantages of combination attack (2)
members in hostile environment-requires live fire training
Characteristics of Smoldering/Decaying Stage (2)
fire no longer burning freely-either consumed all fuel or oxygen
If you suspect a backdraft, the first tactic is to
vent highest portions of affected area
If you suspect a backdraft and roof ventilation is not possible or will take too long, the second approach should be
indirect attack
Where do most backdrafts occur
commercial buildings at night - substantial time to get “cooking”
Elements needed for successful indirect attack (4)
-High heat conditions throughout-Limited ventilation-Point on perimeter to make small opening for 30* fog pattern-no endangered occupants
In an indirect attack, if resources do not permit a rapid follow up and immediate advance of sufficient hose streams, then it is best to
leave the area sealed and let the steam soak in. Steam atmosphere must have several minutes of soaking time to have the desired smother effect
If ventilation is performed prematurely, ___ may occur throughout the superheated area
re-ignition
Two reasons the indirect method of attack isn’t practical for the majority of structure fires is
(Most important) total unsuitability for use in areas that pose a potential life hazard-unlikelihood of finding all necessary ingredients present simultaneously
Four key requirements for indirect attack
no occupants-Limited ventilation-High heat-Limited size of the potential fire area
Indirect attack is not suitable for use in
occupied residential buildings
Indirect attack does not maintain
thermal balance
Large-area commercial structures are unlikely locations for indirect attack since
the steam generating requirements become greater as the building increases in size
It is important to recognize that the use of the indirect method of attack alone may not prevent
a backdraft explosion
Third option/approach for suspected backdraft
use a hose stream to blow the windows in from a safe distance behind apparatus or other parked vehicles
Misconception about backdrafts is that they don’t occur at fires that are
free-burning (they don’t occur in an “area” that is free burning)
Advantages of Indirect Method of Attack (4)
reduce ff exposure to potential backdraft-Extinguish fire in areas where heat conditions deny entry to ff (holds of ships, railroad boxcars, shipping containers)-Limited crew can Extinguish more fire than combination attack and in areas remote from Point of water application-often uses less water (may have less water damage than other methods)
Disadvantages of Indirect Method of Attack (5)
-cannot be used in an occupied building-presence of ventilation openings will dilute the effect of the stream-discharge of less than critical volume can push fire ahead of the steam blowing fire into vertical or horizontal voids-it isn’t possible to view interior layout prior to incident-can result in additional water damage (soaking materials that aren’t threatened)
Three different operating modes
Initiate an offensive attack-Establish defensive positions-no action at all
Defensive operations are generally ___, with the highest priority being ___
exteriorprotecting exposures
Exposure protection is best accomplished by
coating the exposed surface with water (radiant heat can pass thorough a water curtain)
Two means responsible for most of the spread of fire to exposures
radiation and direct flame exposure
Important tactic at fires in warehouses containing poisons or pesticides…and why?
No attack at all - runoff from those streams would spread toxins
Cardinal rule of aggressive firefighting
don’t use an outside stream in an occupied building - pushes fire/byproducts back into structure where victims are
Major downfall of many engine company operations
crews try to do too many things at once
Things that influence the time it takes to position hoseline (4)
Number of personnel on hand-height/area of structure-location of fire-distraction of other operations
Get the first line in place between the ___ and ___ as soon as possible. If necessary commit ___ to the task
fire; occupantsall available personnel
Before you split crews or start another difficult hoseline stretch with an insufficient number of personnel, concentrate on
getting the first line into operation
Only two things should prevent hoseline advances
heat and flame
If heat is thwarting the advance, as opposed to a visible body of fire, the answer probably lies in
performing ventilation, preferably opposite the advancing hoseline
If flame is impeding your advance, ___ is needed, or ___
more waterwater is not reaching the seat of the fire
When a larger flow is needed, the most practical method is
commit a second line to the same position
Rule of thumb when committing a second line is
it should be at least as large as the original hoseline
In an average house or apartment, if the fire hasn’t darkened down after ___ of hoseline operations, something is drastically wrong. In most cases this will happen in under ___
10 minutes2 minutes
In most cases, the threats to victims are best removed if we
rapidly extinguish the fire
The ___ attack is highly suited for the second, free-burning stage with its high ceiling temps and large volume of flame yet sufficient oxygen and relatively low floor area temps
combination
A master stream from an elevated platform can cover a frontage about ___ in length and up to about ___ stories high
100’, 3 stories (if threat of collapse forces withdrawal…may only be 50-75’)
Final guide for engine company ff
When in doubt, lay it out
Two criteria to determine whether your effort will successfully extinguish the fire
Amount of water discharged is sufficient-water actually reaches the heart of the fire
Residences have three characteristics that play an important role when selecting hoselines
the need for speed-relatively low fire loading-presence of dividing walls or partitions between rooms
If a fire in a residential occupancy has reached flashover stage, a hoseline of at least ___ diameter is required
1 1/2”
Past experience has shown that 2 1/2” hose is ___ on all but the largest residential fires
impractical and unnecessary
Most commercial/industrial properties dictate stretching a 2 1/2” hose because (3 reasons)
fire load is heavier-floor areas demand longer reaching/harder hitting stream-more flammable materials
Rule of thumb, ___ lengths of 1 1/2” hose is the maximum length for preconnect if you want to flow 125 GPM___ lengths of 1 3/4” at 150 GPM or 2” at 190 GPM
46
Even relatively small commercial buildings can require ___ or more of hose to reach the fire
300 ft
Rule of thumb is to have enough hose to equal
the width of the building plus the depth of the building plus one length for each floor
Overstreching (hoselines) results in (3 things)
unnecessarily High pump pressures-added clutter-increased chance of kinks
A good way to ensure that you have the correct amount of hose is to have the nozzle team arrive at the fire area with
one or two lengths to spare
What is the beginning of a successful fire attack?
Getting the proper size hoseline to the needed location
When stretching a hose along the stairwell, a reasonable estimate is
one length of hose for each flight of stairs
When running hose up an open stairwell…when the attack team reaches a safe area, they must secure the hose to prevent
the hose from being pulled back down by the weight of water. Pull up enough hose to secure below the next coupling
Unless used strictly for overhaul, it should be taboo to stretch a handline directly off ___
the end of a ladder pipe or from a platform
Of the three items to consider when putting a line into operation, ___ will probably have the greatest effect on the fire
the ultimate destination of the hose
The highest priority for hoseline positioning is
placing a hoseline between the fire and the victims
In unusual circumstances, a separate line may be required to protect each individual rescue. This should not, however, delay ___
the stretching of the hoseline to the seat of the fire via the main means of egress
In any multi-level building, except for the need to place hoselines to protect a specific life hazard, the main priority must be
to position a hoseline to protect the interior staircases
When the fire is below you, you must have ___ before starting down the stairs
the line charged
For fires in one story commercial buildings or outside fires of significant proportions, the hoseline should be placed to
cut off the fire, not to chase it
Many fires that occur in the means of egress are the result of
arson
Factors to consider when making a decision about whether to commit the first line to interior operations or to act as an exposure protection line
(Most important) extent of fire-attack capability of the unit-construction of the buildings (particularly the exterior siding)
Combustible siding that poses the biggest exposure risk
vinyl or asphalt
Greatest protection from radiant heat (exposures)
distance
From an exposure standpoint, the most severe threat to a non combustible sided building would be
a window in the opposite exposure directly in line with and slightly higher than the fire
With as little as ___ gap between two noncombustible walls, there is little threat from exposure if the first line puts the fire out
10 ft
In a framed structure, if the entire wall surface of the fire building is involved, the separation of ___ or even ___ may not be enough to prevent an exposure from becoming involved
50 ft; 100 ft
Functions of the nozzle
regulates the Amount of water flowing-increases the velocity of the water flowing-give a stream its shape
Temporary measure to reestablish/maintain control of the nozzle
throttle down the handle to reduce flow (correct procedure is to notify member supplying the water to reduce the pressure)
If only a portion of the flow is required for fire control, ___
crack the nozzle appropriately
Rule of thumb, no nozzle should have an opening greater than
half the diameter of its hoselinei.e. - 2 1/2” line=1 1/4” tip max
___ is a useful factor to keep in mind when the fire is hidden, either in deep-seated piles of materials or behind building surfaces. (nozzles openings)
Striking power
Nozzle tip for response area made up of overcrowded tenements with tight bends and long hose stretchesAdvantages of it…
solid stream tip-extinguishes fire without creating suffocating clouds of steam-50psi more engine pressure to use for friction loss-maximum penetration of hidden voids
Two main types of fog nozzles currently in use
constant-gallonageconstant-pressure (automatic)
It is a good idea always to ensure that when beginning operations, the nozzles manual setting is
at the maximum
Basic concept of a constant-pressure (automatic) fog nozzle
a spring regulates the size of the discharge opening to counter pressure fluctuations keeping pressure “constant”
Rule of thumb, if one person can control a 1 3/4” or 2” handline, then
the line isn’t delivering its designed flow
A fire in a ___ can spread quickly and pose the added danger of falling objects
vertical shaft (ex. - pipe chase)
Last resort devices for applying water where an entrance to an area is impossible or impractical. Most people grossly underestimate the time it takes to put them into operation
Cellar nozzles and distributors
Things that have reduced the use of cellar nozzles and distributors (3 things)
SCBA-power saws-High-expansion foam
Cellar nozzles task is to ___ the fire rather than ___
darken downextinguish it
Difficulties associated with the use of cellar nozzles
area from which they must be applied may be untenable-structural stability of the first floor itself
How to protect the person/crew cutting the access hole and operating the cellar nozzle
protective handline
Cellar pipes, such as the ___, only apply water in one or two directions at a time. For this reason, they must be constantly staffed with personnel directing the stream for greatest effect
Baker pipe
One redeeming factor of cellar pipes
The reach of the stream which can be 50 feet or more.It maybe possible to cut a hole over a safer area and use the reach of the stream
Revolving nozzle with a limited range, a radius of the only ___. Has to be placed nearly directly over the fire
Bresnan distributor15 to 20 feet
Bresnan distributor disadvantage/advantage
Has to be placed in nearly Directly over the fire-it is not necessary to staff these devices continually, since they distribute water and circular pattern without guidance
When using any cellar nozzle, place a ___ so that the crew can control the flow without worrying about the floor caving in beneath them
gate valve 50 ft back
Extremely expanded solution of water and detergent
High-ex foam (400:1 to 1,000:1)
Primary function of High-ex foam
fill an enclosure, pushing out the products of combustion and replacing them with a water solution which will cool source of fire
Primarily been used as a defensive tool when crews have been pushed out of a cellar and nothing else seems to be working
High-ex foam
When high-ex foam is discharged into an area, an opening must be provided preferably located ___ for the purpose of
near the upper spaces opposite the injection siteallowing heat, smoke and fire to escape
Factors that must be present for high-ex foam to stand a chance of extinguishing the fire
must be applied as soon as practical-must be applied in sufficient quantity-must be applied where it can reach the seat of fire
Problems with high-ex foam
muffled sound-foam acts as shield to heat buildup overhead which can lead to steam burns to crew following with fog nozzle
Only enter high-ex foam blanket under the following circumstances
life saving or fire containment and structural stability is assured-properly equipped with SCBA and PASS, and remain in constant contact with either a search guide rope or hoseline-electricity to area shut down-RIT team dedicated to this operation-if entering for extinguishment, hoseline charged, operate only on straight stream or very narrow fog, sweeping ceiling ahead
Description given to the several additives that were first developed to reduce water surface tension
Wet water
System designed to improve the flow of water through a hoseline by injecting POLYOX
Rapid Water system (from 180 gpm to 250 gpm in 1 3/4” line)
One of the first Class A foams developed
High-ex foam
Additive originally developed by 3M with the Navy for use on Class B fires primarily involving aircraft crash firefighting
Light Water (generic name - AFFF)
For the purpose of applying foam to coat the exterior of an exposed structure as a wildfire approached, what allowed the foam to cling to walls and other vertical surfaces better than wetter foam produced by fog nozzles
aspirating the foam solution allowing greater expansion ratios
