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Anatomy and Physiology (Lec) : Finals > Finals Flashcards > Flashcards

Finals Flashcards

1
Q

Endocrine chemical messengers are called

A

Hormones

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2
Q

Four classes of chemical messengers

A

Autocrine,
Paracrine,
Neurotransmitter, and
Endocrine

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3
Q

These are chemical signals produced by specialized cells,
secreted into the bloodstream and carried to a target tissue.

A

Hormones

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4
Q

Feedback Mechanisms

Increase in product leads to elevation of the activity and the
production rate

A

Positive Feedback

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5
Q

Feedback Mechanisms

Increased product leads to decreased activity in the
production rate

A

Negative Feedback

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6
Q

Types of Hormones

Hormones that diffuse through the plasma
membrane of its target cell and bind to a cytoplasmic
receptor or a nuclear receptor.In the nucleus, the
combination of the hormone and the receptor initiates
protein synthesis, described later in this chapter

A

Lipid-soluble

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7
Q

Types of Hormones

Hormones that bind to the external portion of
membrane-bound receptors, which are integral membrane
proteins on its target cell.

A

Water-soluble

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8
Q

Are sensitive to the environment of the body hence cells secrete hormones that control the substance of molecules
based on the bodies

A

Humoral Stimuli

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9
Q

Are regulated by action potentials which controls the body’s response to change such as hard rate or blood flow

A

Neural Stimuli

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10
Q

Occurs to hormones that stimulate the secretion of other
hormones in the body and in turn are also capable of
inhibiting its actions

A

Hormonal Stimuli

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11
Q

Hormones exert their actions by binding to target cell
proteins called

A

receptors

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12
Q

The portion of each molecule where a hormone binds is
called

A

receptor site

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13
Q

same chemical compositions are called

A

epinephrine

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14
Q

Summarize the mechanism of your nuclear receptors

A

Nuclear receptors activates nucleus to produce proteins through messenger RNA (mRNA)

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15
Q

cells stimulates itself

A

autocrine

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16
Q

stimulates nearby cells without entering the bloodstream

A

Paracrine

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17
Q

secreted into the bloodstream, by certain glands and
cells, then travel to their target

A

Endocrine

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18
Q

secreted by neurons into the synaptic cleft that activate an
adjacent cell

A

Neurotransmitter

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19
Q

The receptors that bind to DNA have fingerlike projections that recognize and bind to specific nucleotide sequences in the DNA called

A

hormone-response elements

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20
Q

The combination of the hormone and its receptor forms a

A

transcription factor

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21
Q

Summarize the mechanism of membrane-bound receptors

A

It attaches to receptors to activate G protein of your cell membrane to activate, again, the second messenger of the chemical messengers called Cyclic AMP (cAMP) to have stimulations on cells to produce more hormones

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22
Q

Derived from amino acids they are an intermediary between steroids and protein

A

Amines

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23
Q

Chains of amino acids that are synthesized and stored within the cell in the form of secretory granules and cleaved as needed

A

Peptides and proteins

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24
Q

Examples of Amines

A

Tyrosine, Thyroxine, Epinephrine, Norepinephrine

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25
Q

What type of Hormones are ACTH, ADH, Oxytocin, PTH, Prolactin, Somatostatin, MSH

A

Polypeptides

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26
Q

What type of Hormones are FSH, HCG, TSH, Erythropoietin

A

Glycoproteins

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27
Q

Give three examples of Protein

A

Insulin, GH, Calcitonin

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28
Q

What is/are the difference/s of Diabetes Mellitus from Diabetes Insp

A
  • Affected by dietary consumption (Type 2)
  • Autoimmune capability (Type 1)
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29
Q

● Lipid molecules that have cholesterol as a common precursor
● Produced by adrenal glands, ovaries, testes, and placenta

A

Steroids

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30
Q

Give some examples of Steroids

A

Aldosterone, Cortisol, Estradiol, Progesterone,
Testosterone, activated vitamin D3

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31
Q

secrete releasing and inhibiting hormones

A

Hypothalamic neurons

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32
Q

portal system for transport of hypothalamic hormones

A

Hypothalamo Hypophyseal

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33
Q

regulate the anterior pituitary

A

Hypothalamic hormones

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34
Q

travel to their targets

A

Anterior pituitary hormones

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35
Q

● Master gland
● Pea-sized but has a vital role
● Commands also other glands when to secrete hormones
● Asks signals from hypothalamus
● Maintain homeostasis; maintain equilibrium = either regulate or maintain

A

Pituitary Gland

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36
Q

Most abundant of all pituitary hormones.
Somatotropin

A

Growth Hormone

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37
Q

Functions of GH?

A

● Stimulate the growth of bones muscles and organs
● Stimulates says to produce insulin-like growth factors (IGF)
● Increase the rate of protein synthesis
○ metabolizes fat stores while conserving glucose

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38
Q

A decrease in GH is equivalent to?

A

Abnormal development of pituitary gland = Pituitary Dwarf

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39
Q

An increase in GH is equivalent to?

A

Hormonal secreting tumors Gigantism (acromegaly)

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40
Q

A pituitary lactogenic hormone, stress hormone, and a direct effector hormone

A

Prolactin

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41
Q

When Prolactin releases hormones, it will result in?

A

stimulation of production

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42
Q

Lesser production by the prolactin is a result of?

A

Inhibiting hormones

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43
Q

● Thyrotropin
● Binds to the thyroid glands

A

Thyroid Stimulating Hormone

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44
Q

The function of TSH?

A

Stimulates secretion and growth of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4)

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44
Q

Hypothyroidism is caused by

A

Destruction of the thyroid gland / Shrink thyroid glands and
secretes little thyroid hormone / Decrease in TSH

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45
Q

An increase in TSH will result to

A

Enlarged thyroid gland and secretes too much thyroid hormone = Hyperthyroidism

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46
Q

Stimulate melanin production in melanocytes to make skin
darker

A

Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone

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47
Q

Hyperglycemic hormones

A

Glucagon and Cortisol

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48
Q

What are the result/s of the action of PTH

A
  • Stimulation of calcium reabsorption in the blood
  • Decrease loss of calcium ions in the urine
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49
Q

● Binds to receptors of adrenal cortex
● Increases the secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex called cortisol
● Binds to melanocytes in the skin and increased skin
pigmentation

A

Adrenocorticotropic Hormones

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50
Q

When is Diurnal variation the highest and lowest

A

highest level between 6:00 AM to 8:00 AM and lowest between 6:00 PM to 11:00 PM

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51
Q

These are hormones that serve as important markers in diagnosing fertility.

A

Gonadotropin Hormones : LH and FSH

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52
Q

● Major function is to regulate water balance in the body
● Stops us to urinate
● Acts in the distal convoluted and collecting tubules of the
kidneys
● Conserves water; constricts blood vessels

A

Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) / vasopressin

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53
Q

Decrease of ADH production causes

A

● Kidneys produce large amounts of water
● Diabetes Insipidus (polyuria)

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54
Q

What are some of the Inhibitors of ADH Release

A

Ethanol, cortisol, lithium, demeclocycline

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55
Q

● Binds to the smooth muscle cells of the uterus as well as milk let down from the breasts in lactating women
● Causes contraction of the myometrium of the uterus during labor
● Stimulated by nerve impulses from the hypothalamus as
cervix is stretched and as infants suck the nipple of the
mother

A

Oxytosin

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56
Q

● Located in the neck
● Butterfly-shaped organ
● Made up of two lobes connected by a narrow band called
isthmus
● Consists of follicular and parafollicular cells (C cells)

A

Thyroid Gland

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57
Q

Function of the Thyroid Gland

A

● Synthesizes and secretes T3, T4, and calcitonin

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58
Q

Most important element in the biosynthesis of
thyroid hormones

A

Iodine

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59
Q

Embedded in the posterior wall of the thyroid gland

A

Parathyroid Gland

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60
Q

Functions of the Parathyroid Gland

A

○ Increases active vit. D formation
○ Decrease loss of calcium ions in the urine
○ Promotes bone resorption
○ Secretes parathyroid hormone

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61
Q

An abnormally low rate of PTH secretion results in

A

hypopara-thyroidism

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62
Q

An abnormally high rate of PTH secretion results in

A

hyper-parathyroidism

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63
Q

Two small glands superior to each kidney

A

adrenal gland

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64
Q

● Inner part of the Adrenal Gland
● Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline or secondary amine
responsible for fight or flight) and norepinephrine
(noradrenaline which is highest concentration in CNS)

A

adrenal medulla

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65
Q

● Outer part
● Secretes steroid hormones

A

adrenal cortex

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66
Q

● Electro-regulating hormone
● The more that it secretes in the body, the lesser in the blood system (risky)
● The lesser that it secretes in the body, the more in the blood system

A

Zona glomerulosa: Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone)

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67
Q

● It is the only adrenal hormone that inhibits the secretion of ACTH
● Hyperglycemic agent that increases the glucose level in the body

A

Zona Fasciculata: Glucocorticoid (Cortisol)

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68
Q

● Serves as precursor for the production of androgen and estrogen in tissues
● It is also the byproduct cortisol synthesis

A

Zona Reticularis: Adrenal androgens (DHEA)

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69
Q

Exhibit exocrine and endocrine functions

A

Pancreas

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70
Q

Released when blood glucose levels are low. binds primarily in the liver, causing glycogen (storage component of liver) stores to be converted into glucose

A

Alpha Cells ; Glugagon

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71
Q

Released when blood glucose levels are high

A

Beta Cells ; Insulin

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72
Q

Released in response to food intake. Inhibits the secretion of insulin and glucagon and inhibits gastric tract activity.

A

Delta Cells ; Somatostatin

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73
Q

● Most potent male androgen
● Synthesized by Leydig cells
● Promotes maturation of sperm
● Stimulates the development of secondary sex characteristics
● Promotes the closure of epiphysis of long bones

A

Testes ; testosterone

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74
Q

● Produced by the growing Grafiam Follicle
● Secreted in the ovaries prior the ovulation ; also produced in the placenta during pregnancy
● Secretion is regulated by FSH
● Involved in the enlargement of the uterus and breast during pregnancy

A

Estrogen

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75
Q

● Prepares the uterus for pregnancy
● Produced by corpus luteum
● Secreted in the ovaries after the ovulation ; also produced in the placenta during pregnancy
● Secretion is regulated by LH
● Involved in the reduction of contractility of the uterus ; stimulates the growth of mammary glands

A

Progesterone

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76
Q

● Lies in the upper part of the thoracic cavity
● Secretes a hormone called thymosin which aids in the
development of T cells
● White blood cells

A

Thymus Gland

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77
Q

● Small pinecone-shaped structure located superior and
posterior to the thalamus of the brain
● Secretes hormones called melatonin which plays a role in onset of puberty, controls circadian rhythm (sleep), and decreases the pigmentation of the skin

A

Pineal gland

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78
Q

Symptoms of Diabetes Mellitus

A

○ Polydipsia - excessive thirst
○ Polyuria - excessive urination
○ Polyphagia - excessive eating

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79
Q

Problem of insufficient ADH secretion from the posterior
pituitary gland.

A

Diabetes Insipidus

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80
Q

Autoimmune disorder in which antibodies are produced that activates the TSH recept

A

Grave’s Disease

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81
Q

● Hypercortisolism
● Increase of cortisol, normal or decrease of ACTH

A

Cushing’s Syndrome

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82
Q

● Decrease of T3 and T4, increase of TSH
● Caused by destruction or ablation of thyroid gland

A

Hashimoto’s Disease

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83
Q

● Caused by an ACTH-producing pituitary tumor
● Increase of cortisol, increase of ACTH

A

Cushing’s Disease

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84
Q

Is a connective tissue consisting of a variety of cells which are suspended in a fluid matrix called

A

Plasma

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85
Q

Composition of Blood

A

Plasma, Buffy Coat and Formed elements

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86
Q

Process that produces formed elements (rbc, wbc, platelets)

A

Hematopoiesis

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87
Q

Disk-shaped with thick edges that transport o2 to tissues

A

Erythrocytes

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88
Q

● Main component of erythrocytes
● Transports 𝑜2

A

Hemoglobin

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89
Q

Hemoglobin with an 𝑜2 attached

A

Oxyhemoglobin

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90
Q

explain the production of RBC

A

● Decreased blood 𝑜2 levels cause kidneys to increase production of erythropoietin.
● Erythropoietin stimulates red bone marrow to produce more erythrocytes.
● Increased erythrocytes cause an increase in blood 𝑜2 levels.

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91
Q

Cells that
● Lack hemoglobin
● Larger than erythrocytes
● Contain a nucleus

A

Leukocytes

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92
Q

Functions of WBC

A

● Fight infections
● Removes dead cells and debris by phagocytosis

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93
Q

● contain specific granules and include neutrophils,
eosinophils, and basophils

A

Granulocytes

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94
Q
  • most common
  • remains in blood for 10 to 12 hours then move to tissues
  • phagocytes
A

Neutrophils

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95
Q
  • reduce inflammation
  • destroy parasites
A

Eosinophils

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96
Q
  • least common
  • release histamine and heparin
  • response to allergens
A

Basophils

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97
Q
  • no specific granules
A

Agranulocytes

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98
Q
  • largest-sized white blood cells
  • produce macrophages
A

Monocytes

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99
Q
  • immune response
  • several different types (T cells and B cells)
  • lead to production of antibodies
A

Lymphocytes

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100
Q

minute fragments of cells, each consisting of a small amount of cytoplasm surrounded by a cell membrane.

A

PLATELETS

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101
Q

large cells are known as

A

megakaryocytes

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102
Q

When blood vessels are damaged, blood can leak into other
tissues and disrupt normal function.

A

blood loss

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103
Q

Temporary constriction of blood vessel

A

Vascular spasm

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104
Q

Can seal up small breaks in blood vessels

A

Platelet plugs

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105
Q

Blood clotting is also known as

A

Coagulation

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106
Q

Clotting Factor

A

● Proteins in plasma
● Only activated following injury
● Made in liver
● Require vitamin K

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107
Q

● Network of thread-like proteins called fibrin that trap blood cells and fluid
● Depends on clotting factors

A

Clot

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108
Q

Examples of Anticoagulants

A

heparin and antithrombin

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109
Q

● Condensing of clot
● Serum in plasma is squeezed out of clot
● Helps enhance healing

A

Clot Retraction

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110
Q

● Process of dissolving clot
● Plasminogen (plasma protein) breaks down clot (fibrin)

A

Fibrinolysis

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111
Q

UNIVERSAL BLOOD DONOR

A

o-

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112
Q

UNIVERSAL BLOOD RECIPIENT

A

ab+

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113
Q

WHOLE BLOOD

A

PLASMA + RBC

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114
Q

RBC’s ONLY

A

PACKED RBCS

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115
Q

Why is AB+ considered the universal recepient

A

AB+ is considered as the universal blood donor it’s PRBC’s
matches with both A and B, and the + RH type can accept a -
blood type AB+ is considered as the universal blood donor it’s PRBC’s matches with both A and B, and the + RH type can accept a - blood type

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116
Q

Provides information such as RBC count, hemoglobin,
hematocrit, and WBC count

A

Complete Blood Count (CBC)

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117
Q

This occurs when the mother produces anti-RH antibodies that cross the placenta and agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes occur

A

Hemolytic Disease of Newborn

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118
Q

How can you prevent Hemolytic Disease of Newborn?

A

with RhoGAM

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119
Q

● Low white blood cell count
● Caused by radiation, chemotherapy drugs, tumors, viral
infections

A

Leukopenia

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120
Q

● High white blood cell count
● Caused by infections and leukemia

A

Leukocytosis

121
Q

Fluid that enters lymphatic capillaries composed of water and some solutes

A

Lymph

122
Q

White blood cells which are responsible for fighting viral
infections and producing antibodies

A

Lymphocytes

123
Q

● Reads protein manuscripts;
● Makes antibodies

A

B cell Lymphocytes

124
Q

Carries fluid in one direction from tissues to circulatory
system

A

Lymphatic Vessels

125
Q

● Tiny, closed-ended vessels
● Join to form lymphatic vessels

A

Lymphatic Capillaries

126
Q

Removes all fluid that leak out of our blood vessels

A

Lymphatic Duct

127
Q

● Rest of the body empties from lymphatic vessels
● Empties into left subclavian vein

A

Thoracic Duct

128
Q

Two types of lymphatic duct

A

Thoracic Duct and Right Lymphatic Duct

129
Q

● Located at the oropharynx
● Forms a protective ring of lymphatic tissue around nasal and oral cavities

A

Tonsils

130
Q

● Located in mediastinum behind the sternum
● Bilobed organ
● Lymphocyte production and maturation site

A

Thymus Gland

131
Q

● Located in the abdomen

Functions
● Filters blood
● Detect and respond to foreign substances
● Destroy senescent RBC’s
● Blood reservoir

A

Spleen

132
Q

● Filtering interstitial fluid collected from soft tissues eventually returning it to the vascular tissues
● It is where lymph moves through,
● and immune system is activated (lymphocyte produced) if foreign substances are detected

A

Lymph Node

133
Q

Afferent Pathway

A

From Lymphatic Capillaries - Lymph Nodes

134
Q

Efferent Pathway

A

Lymph Node - Thoracic Duct

135
Q

● Ability to resist damage from foreign substances substances.
● It protects your body against microbes, toxins, and cancer
cells

A

Immunity

136
Q

Two types of Immunity in our body

A

● Innate Immunity
○ Natural
○ Already exists in our body
● Adaptive Immunity
○ Substances that help enhance our immune system

137
Q

Five cardinal signs of inflammation

A
  1. rabor (redness)
  2. tumor (swelling)
  3. calor (heat)
  4. dolor (pain)
  5. functio laesa (loss of function)
138
Q

Immunity that develops during your lifetime

A

Acquired Adaptive Immunity

139
Q

Develops in response to an infection or vaccination

A

Active AAI

140
Q

Develops after you receive antibodies from someone or somewhere else

A

Passive AAI

141
Q

● 80 - 85% in serum
● Transplacentral
● Responsible for RH reactions
● Activates complement and increases phagocytosis
● Most abundant
● Reacts in Cold Temperature
● G = Gurang / Late

A

IgG

142
Q

● 5 - 10% in serum
● Activates complement
● Acts as AG Binding receptor on the B cell surface
● Responsible for ABO reaction
● First AB produces in response to an AG
● Reacts in Room Temperature
● M = Muuna

A

IgM

143
Q

● 15% in serum
● Secreted into other body fluids (saliva, tears, mucous membranes)
● Protects body surface
● Found in colostrum

A

IgA

144
Q

● 0.002% in serum
● Binds to mast cells and basophils
● Stimulates the inflammatory response
● Usually responds as Allergic Reaction

A

IgE

145
Q

● 0.2% in serum
● Functions as an antigen binding receptor on B cells

A

IgD

146
Q

tissue transplanted from one site to another on
the same person

A

Autograft

147
Q

tissue graft from an identical person (identical twin)

A

Isograft

148
Q

tissues taken from an unrelated person

A

Allograft

149
Q

tissues taken from a different animal species

A

Xenograft

150
Q

● Production or function of immune cells or complement is
abnormal
● May be congenital or acquired
● Includes AIDS- Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
○ Attacks CD4 Cells

A

Immunodeficiency

151
Q

White matter of the brain and spinal cord are destroyed

A

Multiple Sclerosis

152
Q

● Impairs communication between nerves and skeletal muscles

A

Myasthenia Gravis

153
Q

● A.K.A Type 1 Diabetes
● Destroys pancreatic beta cells that produces insulin

A

Juvenile Diabetes

154
Q

● Destroys joints

A

Rheumatoid Arthritis

155
Q

● Affects the kidney, heart, lung, and skin (butterfly rash) Glomerulonephritis
● Impared renal function

A

Systemic Lupus Erythematosus

156
Q

Only externally visible part of the respiratory system

A

Nose

157
Q
  • Where the olfactory receptors are located (mucosa on the superior surface)
  • Helps moisten air and traps incoming foreign particles
  • Projections have lateral walls call conchae which increases surface air and air turbulence
A

Nasal cavity

158
Q

Muscular passage from nasal cavity to larynx

A

Pharynx

159
Q

Three regions of the Pharynx

A

Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx

160
Q
  • Known as the voice box
  • Located in the anterior part of the laryngopharynx and extends from the base of the tongue to the trachea
  • Held in place by membranes and muscles superior to the hyoid bone and a spoon-shaped slap of elastic cartilage (epiglottis)
A

Larynx

161
Q

Largest hyaline cartilage and protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s Apple)

A

Thyroid cartilage

162
Q

superior opening of the larynx: routes food to the larynx and air toward the trachea

A

Epiglottis

163
Q

vibrate with expelled air to create sound (speech)

A

Vocal cords (vocal folds)

164
Q

opening between vocal cords

A

Glottis

165
Q
  • Also known as windpipe
  • Connects larynx with bronchi
  • Walls are reinforced with C-shaped hyaline cartilage
  • Divides into right and left primary bronchi

Functions:
- Beat continuously in the opposite direction of incoming air
- Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away from the lungs

A

Trachea

166
Q
  • Divide from the trachea
  • Connects to the lungs
  • Line with cilia
  • Contain C-shaped pieces of cartilage
A

Bronchi

167
Q
  • Primary organ of respiration
  • Cone shaped
  • Base rest on the diaphragm
  • Apex extend above the clavivle
  • Right lung has 3 lobes
  • Left lung has two lobes
  • Contains many air passageways (division)
A

Lungs

168
Q
  • Smallest branches of bronchi
  • Terminal bronchioles end in alveoli
A

Bronchioles

169
Q
  • Site of gas exchange
  • Small air sacs
A

alveoli

170
Q
  • In lungs where gas exchange between air and blood occurs
  • Formed by walls of alveoli and capillaries
  • Alveolar ducts and respirator bronchioles also contribute
  • Very thing for diffusion of gases
A

respiratory membrane

171
Q
  • Process of moving air in and out of the lungs
  • Uses diaphragm which is a skeletal muscle that separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities
A

Ventilation

172
Q

Phases of Ventilation

A
  1. Inspiration
  2. Expiration
  3. Forceful expiration
173
Q
  • Breathe in
  • Uses the diaphragm and the external intercostal muscles
  • Atmospheric pressure is greater than (high) alveolar pressure (low)
  • Diaphragm descends and ribcage expands
A

Inspiration

174
Q
  • Breathe out
  • Uses the diaphragm
  • Alveolar pressure is greater than (high) atmospheric pressure (low)
  • Diaphragm relaxes and ribcage recoils
A

Expiration

175
Q
  • Uses internal intercostal muscles
A

Forceful expiration

176
Q

Factors affecting Ventilation

A
  • Lung recoil
  • Pleural Pressure
  • Surfactant
177
Q
  • Tendency for an expanded lung to decrease in size
  • Due to elastic fibers and thin film of fluid lining of the alveoli
A

Lung recoil

178
Q
  • Pressure in the pleural cavity
  • Less than alveolar pressure
  • Keep the alveoli from collapsing
A

Pleural Pressure

179
Q
  • Mixture of lipoproteins
  • Produced by the secretory cells of the alveoli (lecithin and sphingomyelin)
  • Reduces surface tension
  • Keeps lungs from collapsing
A

Surfactant

180
Q

Associated organs in the DIgestive Tract

A
  1. Salivary Glands
  2. Liver
  3. Gallbladder
  4. Pancreas
181
Q

Layers of the Digestive Tract

A
  1. Mucosa
  2. Submucosa
  3. Muscularis
  4. Serosa/adventitia
182
Q
  • Connective tissue of organs in the abdominal cavity
A

Mesenteries

183
Q

Mesentery connecting greater curvature of stomach to transverse colon and posterior body wall

A

Greater omentum

184
Q

Mesentery connecting lesser curvature of stomach to liver and diaphragm

A

Lesser Omentum

185
Q

space between lips externally and teeth and gums internally

A

Vestibule

186
Q
  • attached to hyoid and styloid processes of the skull and by lingual frenulum
    -pushes down the food
A

tongue

187
Q
  • Tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach
  • Transports food to the stomach
  • Joins stomach at cardiac opening
A

Esophagus

188
Q

Process of Swallowing

A
  1. Pharyngeal phase
    - Swallowing reflex initiated when bolus stimulates receptors in the oropharynx
  2. Esophageal phase
    - Moves food from pharynx to stomach
  3. Peristalsis
    - Wave-like contraction moves food through the digestive tract
189
Q
  • Storage tank for food
    Produces mucus, hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes
  • Contains a thick mucus layer that lubricates and protects epithelial cells from acidic ph (3)
  • Site of food for breakdown
  • Delivers chyme to the small intestine
A

Stomach

190
Q

produce a sticky alkaline mucus

A

Mucous neck cells

191
Q

secretes gastric juices

A

Gastric glands

192
Q

produce protein-digesting enzymes

A

Chief Cells

193
Q

produce hydrochloric acid

A

Parietal cells

194
Q

produce gastrin

A

Endocrine cells

195
Q

Movement of the Stomach

A
  1. Mixing waves
    - Weak contraction
    - Thoroughly mix food to form chyme
  2. Peristaltic waves
    - Stronger contraction
    - Force chyme toward and through pyloric sphincter
196
Q
  • Measures 6 meters in length
  • Major absorptive organ
  • Chyme takes 3-5 hours to pass through
  • Contains enzymes to further breakdown food
  • Contains secretion for protection against the acidity of chyme
A

Small Intestine

197
Q
  • First part of the Small Intestine
  • Attached to the stomach which contains microvilli and rugae
  • Curves around the head of the pancreas and contains bile
  • Contains absorptive cells, goblet cells, granular cells, endocrine cells
  • 25cm long
A

Duodenum

198
Q
  • Attaches anteriorly to the duodenum
  • 2.5 meters long and absorbs nutients
A

Jejunum

199
Q
  • Extends from jejunum to large intestine
  • 3.5 meters long
A

Ileum

200
Q

Absorbs water from indigestible food

A

Large Intestine

201
Q
  • Joins small intestine at ileocecal junction
  • Has appendix attached
A

Cecum

202
Q
  • 9 cm structure that is often removed
  • Appendicitis is caused by bacterial infection
A

Appendix

203
Q
  • Contains ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid regions
  • 1.5 meters long
A

Colon

204
Q
  • Straight tube that begins at sigmoid and ends at
    anal canal
A

Rectum

205
Q
  • Digestive and excretory function
  • Stores and processes nutrients
  • Detoxifies harmful chemicals
  • Synthesize new molecules
A

Liver

206
Q

lipid-digestive enzyme

A

Lipase

207
Q

continues the polysaccharide digestion that began in the oral cavity

A

Pancreatic amylase

208
Q

Major excretory system of the body

A

Urinary System

209
Q

Bean shaped Bilateral retroperitoneal organs

A

Kidney

210
Q
  • Connective tissue around each kidney
  • Protects and acts as barrier
A

Renal Capsule

211
Q

Functional unit of the kidney

A

Nephrons

212
Q

structures that contains the Bowman’s capsule and Glomerulus

A

Renal Corpuscle

213
Q
  • Enlarged end of nephron
  • Open into proximal tubule
  • Contains podocytes (specialized cell around glomerular capillaries)
A

Bowman’s Capsule

214
Q
  • In renal corpuscle
  • Includes glomerular capillaries, podocytes, basement membrane
A

Filtration Membrane

215
Q
  • Fluid that passes across the filtration membrane (mostly plasma)
A

Filtrate

216
Q
  • Contains descending and ascending loops
  • Water and solutes pass through thin walls by diffusion (where reabsorption of molecules and solutes)
A

Loop of Henle

217
Q

Structure between loop of Henle and collecting duct

A

Distal Tubule

218
Q
  • Empties into calyces
  • Carry fluid from cortex through medulla
A

Collecting Duct

219
Q

involves removing substances from the filtrate and placing back into the blood

A

reabsorption

220
Q

involves taking substances from the blood at a nephron area other than the renal corpuscle and putting back into the nephron tubule

A

secretion

221
Q

Urine Formation

A

Filtration - Reabsorption - Secretion - Excretion

222
Q

Two Main Lipids

A
  1. Triglycerides
  2. Cholesterol
223
Q
  • secreted from cardiac muscle in the right atrium of the heart when blood pressure increases
  • acts on kidneys to decrease sodium reabsorption
A

Atrial Natriuretic Hormone

224
Q
  • secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
  • acts of kidneys, causing them absorb more water (decrease urine volume)
  • Result is to maintain a normal blood volume and blood pressure
A

Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) Mechanism

225
Q

essential role in the development of structural and functional differences between males and females, influencing behavior, and produce offspring

A

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

226
Q

a special type of cell division that leads to formation of sex cells

A

Meiosis

227
Q

What are gametes

A

● sex cells
● sperm in males
● oocytes (eggs) in females

228
Q

How many chromosomes does each sperm cells and each oocyte contain?

A

23

229
Q

union of sperm and oocyte

A

Fertilization

230
Q

what develops after fertilization

A
  • Zygote
  • develops into an embryo 3 to 14 days after fertilization
231
Q

When does the embryo develop?

A

14 to 56 days after fertilization

232
Q

When does the fetus develop?

A

56 days after fertilization

233
Q

Step-by-step process of Fertilization - Fetus

A

Fertilization
Zygote
Embryo
Fetus

234
Q
  • consists of testes, series of cuts, accessory glands, and supporting structures
  • ducts include epididymis, ductus deferens, and urethra
  • accessory glands include the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral glands
  • supporting structures include scrotum and penis
A

Male Reproductive System

235
Q

● contains testes
● contains dartos muscle that moves the scrotum and testes close to and away from the body depending on temp.
● sper must develop at temp. less than body temp.

A

Scrotum

236
Q

● Primary male reproductive organ
● Produces sperm
● In scrotum

A

Testes

237
Q

where sperm is produced

A

seminiferous tubules

238
Q

cells that sperm cells arise from

A

germ cells

239
Q

nourish germ cells and produce hormones

A

sustentacular cells

240
Q

● Thread-like tubules on side of each tested
● Where seminiferous tubules empty new sperm
● Where sperm continue to mature develop ability to swim and bind to oocytes

A

Epididymis

241
Q

● Extends from epididymis and joins seminal vesicle
● Cut during vasectomy

A

Ductus deferens

242
Q

● corpus cavernosum, corpus spongiosum, spongy urethra
● Three columns of erectile tissue filled with blood for erection
● Transfer sperm from male to female
● Excrete urine

A

Penis

243
Q

● Next to ductus deferens
● Helps from ejaculatory duct

A

Seminal Vesicles

244
Q

Surrounds urethra and size of a walnut

A

Prostate Gland

245
Q

Small mucus secreting glands near the base of prostate gland

A

Bulbourethral Gland

246
Q

● Mixture of sperm and secretions from glands
● Provides a transport medium and nutrients that protect and activate sperm
● 60% of fluids from seminal vesicles
● 30% of fluids from prostate gland
● 5% of fluid as from bulbourethral gland
● 5% of fluid is from testes

A

Semen

247
Q

● Provide fructose (sugar)
● Contain prostaglandins which decrease mucus thickness around cervix and uterine tubes and helps sperm move through female reproductive tract
● Contains coagulans that help delivers semen into female

A

Seminal Vesicles

248
Q

Contains enzyme to liquify semen after it is inside female

A

Prostate Gland

249
Q

Neutralizes acidity of male urethra in female vagina

A

Bulbourethral Gland

250
Q

● Includes prevent small about the fluid
● 2 to 5 ml. of semen is ejaculated each time
● 1 ml. of semen contains 10 million sperm
● Sperm can live for 72 hours once inside a female.

A

. Testicular Secretions

251
Q

Path of Sperm

A
  1. Sperm develop in seminiferous tubules (testes)
  2. Epididymis (mature)
  3. Ductus deferens
  4. Receives secretions from seminal vesicles, prostate
    gland, and bulbourethral gland
  5. Erythromycin or sperm exit the body
252
Q

cells from which sperm cells arise

A

Spermatogonia

253
Q

Explain Spermatogenesis

A
  1. Spermatogonia are the cells from which sperm cells arise. Spermatogonia divides by mitosis. One daughter cell remains spermatogonium that can divide again by mitosis. One daughter cell becomes a primary spermatocyte.
  2. The primary spermatocyte divides by meiosis to form secondary spermatocytes.
  3. The secondary spermatocytes divide by meiosis to form spermatids.
  4. Spermatids differentiate to form sperm cells.
254
Q

Production of Sperm Cells

A
  1. Germ cells
  2. Spermatogonia
  3. Primary spermatocytes
  4. Secondary spermatocytes
  5. Spermatids
  6. Sperm Cells
255
Q

Sperm Cell Structure

A

Head
● Contain a nucleus and DNA
Midpiece
● Contain mitochondria
Tail
● Flagellum for movement

256
Q

produced in the hypothalamus and stimulates secretion of LH and FSH.

A

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

257
Q

produced in the anterior pituitary and stimulates secretion of testosterone

A

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

258
Q

produced in the anterior pituitary and prompt spermatogenesis

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

259
Q

produced in the interstitial cells in the testes and is involved in development and maintenance of reproductive organs

A

Testosterone

260
Q

secreted by cells of the seminiferous tubules and inhibits FSH secretion

A

Inhibin

261
Q

When does male puberty start

A

Begins at 12 to 14 and ends around 18

262
Q

Male Puberty Secondary sexual characteristics develop

A

Skin texture, fat distribution, hair growth, skeletal muscle growth, and larynx changes

263
Q

Complex series of reflexes that result in erection of the penis, secretion of mucus into the urethra, emission, and ejaculation

A

Male Sex Act

264
Q

The movement of sperm cells, mucus, prostatic secretion, and seminal vesicle secretions into the prostatic, membranous, and spongy urethra

A

Emission

265
Q

the forceful expulsion of the secretions that have accumulated in the urethra to the exterior

A

Ejaculation

266
Q

Sensations, normally interpreted as pleasurable, of your during the male sex act and result in an intense sensation call an

A

orgasm

267
Q

occurs after ejaculation in which the penis becomes flaccid, an overall feeling of satisfaction exists, and the male is unable to achieve erection in a second ejaculation.

A

resolution

268
Q

The first major component of the male sex act

A

Penile Erection

269
Q
  • Consists of the ovaries, the uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia, and mammary glands
  • located within the pelvis between urinary bladder and the rectum
A

Female Reproductive System

270
Q

● Primary female reproductive organ
● Produces oocytes and sex hormones
● One on either side of uterus

A

ovaries

271
Q

anchor ovaries to uterus

A

Ovarian ligaments

272
Q

anchor ovaries to pelvic cavity

A

Suspensory ligaments

273
Q

cells in ovaries that contains oocytes

A

Ovarian follicle

274
Q

Part of uterus which extends toward ovaries and received oocytes

A

Uterine (Fallopian) Tubes

275
Q

fringe-like structures around opening of uterine tubes that help sweep oocytes into uterine tubes

A

Fimbriae

276
Q

sterilization of female

A

Tubal ligation

277
Q

● pear sized structure located in pelvic cavity
● functions: receive, retain, and provide nourishment for fertilized oocyte, where embryo resides and develops
● body: main part
● cervix: narrow vision that leads to vagina

A

uterus

278
Q

Layers of the uterus wall

A

● Perimetrium (serous)
● Myometrium (muscular)
● Endometrium

279
Q

● Extends from uterus to outside of body
● Female population organ that receives during intercourse
● Allows menstrual flow
● Involved in childbirth
● Contains very muscular walls and the mucous membrane
● Very acidic to keep bacteria out

A

vagina

280
Q

● Larger and outer folds of skin
● Equivalent to male scrotum

A

Labia majora

281
Q

Finn and inner fold of skin

A

Labia minora

282
Q

● Small erectile structure located in vestibule
● Equivalent to male penis

A

Clitoris

283
Q

● Where 2 labia minora unite over clitoris

A

Prepuce

284
Q

● Space in which vagina and urethra are located

A

Vestibule

285
Q

● Release an oocyte from the ovary
● due to LH secreted from the anterior pituitary

A

Ovulation

286
Q

● Mature follicle after ovulation
● Degenerates if egg is not fertilized

A

Corpus luteum

287
Q

When does female puberty begin?

A

Begins between 11 to 13 and is usually completed by 16

288
Q

first episode of menstrual bleeding

A

Menarche

289
Q

● Organs of milk production in breast
● Modified sweat gland
● Female breast begin to enlarge during puberty
● Consist of lobes covered by adipose
● Lobes, ducts, lobules are altered during lactation to expel milk

A

Mammary Glands

290
Q

produced in the anterior pituitary and causes ovulation.

A

Luteinizing hormone (LH)

291
Q

produced in the anterior pituitary and prompt follicles in the ovaries to begin development

A

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH)

292
Q

○ Proliferation of endometrial cells
○ Development of mammary glands (especially duct system)
○ Control of LH and FSH secretion
○ Development and maintenance of secondary sex characteristics

A

Estrogen

293
Q

○ Enlargement of endometrial cells and secretion of fluid from uterine glands
○ Maintenance of pregnancy state
○ Development of mammary glands (especially alveoli)
○ Control of estrogen, FSH, and LH secretion
○ Development of secondary sex characteristics

A

Progesterone

294
Q

Series of changes that occur in sexually mature, non-pregnant females

A

Menstrual Cycle

295
Q

● Time when endometrium is shed from uterus
● Average is 28 days and results from cyclical changes that appear in the endometrium

A

Menses

296
Q

Stages of Menstrual Cycle

○ Menstrual bleeding (menses)
○ Estrogen and progesterone levels are low
○ Follicle begins to mature

A

Days 1 to 5 - Menses (shedding of endometrium)

297
Q

Stages of Menstrual Cycle

○endometrium rebuilds
○ estrogen levels begin to increase
○ progesterone levels remain low
○ follicle matures

A

Days 6 to 13 - Proliferative (between end of menses and ovulation)

298
Q

Stages of Menstrual Cycle

○ oocyte is released due to LH
○ estrogen levels high
○ progesterone levels are increased
○ cervical mucus thins

A

Day 14 - Ovulation

299
Q

Stages of Menstrual Cycle

○Endometrium is preparing for implantation
○ Estrogen levels decrease (low)
○ Progesterone levels (high)
○ Cervical mucus thickens

A

Days 15 to 28 - Secretory (between ovulation and next menses)

300
Q

Stages of Menstrual Cycle

A
  1. Menses
  2. Proliferative
  3. Ovulation
  4. Secretory
301
Q

● Time when ovaries secrete less hormones and number of follicles in ovaries is low
● Menstrual cycle and ovulation are less regular
● Hot flashes, fatigues, irritability may occur
● Estrogen replacement therapy may be used to decrease side effects

A

Menopause

Anatomy and Physiology (Lec) : Finals (1 decks)

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