finals AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Flashcards
How many years for preclinical testing, what is the test population, purpose and success rate
6.5 years, lab and animal studies to assess safety, biological activity and formulations. 5000 compounds evaluated
How many years for phase 1, what is the test population, purpose
1.5 years, 20 to 100 healthy volunteers to determine safety and dosage
How many years for phase 2, what is the test population, purpose
100 to 500 patient volunteers to evaluate effectiveness and look for side effects
How many years for phase 3, what is the test population, purpose
1000 to 5000 patient volunteers to confirm effectiveness, monitor adverse reactions from long term use, to compare efficacy of new treatment with standard regimen
When do you need to get FDA approval
After preclinical and after phase 3
How long does it take for the FDA to finally approve and how many drugs make it (out of how many)
1.5 years after phase 3. it takes a total of 15 years and only one drug is approved from the 5 that enter clinical trials
Why do cancer cells reproduce infinitely
Growth machinery is activated or stop machinery is gone. This is often a genetic change, with the DNA being different from healthy cells
What kind of mutations are passed on
inherited but not acquired mutations, because acquired or somatic mutations are not in the egg or sperm cells
What mutations cause cancer
acquired lol, i’m going to die because of my constant exposure to chemicals and possible carcinogens due to cosplay
What is the newer type of cancer drugs
Targeted therapy
What are the two components of human immune system
Innate and acquired immunity
What do t cells do
They are a type of immune cell that bind foreign peptides to kill cancer cells
What do b cells do
They have the ability to create antibodies, which kill cancer
How does cancer evade our immune systems
Cancer can turn off immune cells, change the healthy cells in tissue around tumor, and alters how immune system deals with cancer cell
What is immunotherapy
A therapy that helps our immune system overcome the ways cancer evades it
How did deidra williams get cured in first in human
first remove own hemotopoietic stem cells by chemo then deliver family member’s stem cells
How many drugs are marketed in north america
1000
How many prescriptions per year in the US
3.4 billion
How many hospital visits need drug therapy
75%
What does the who list of essential medicines take into account
how common the disease is, how serious is the disease, public health, community health, efficacy, cost effectiveness
What is a drug target
a molecule that the drug binds to that deactivates the molecule, usually a protein. It needs to bind specifically.
How many animal species to test on in drug discovery
2
In what cases do you have patients in phase 1
Cancer patients
When is pharmokinetics investigated
phase 1
When was the flu pandemic and how many people did it kill
1918, 50 to 100 million people
When were the first smallpox vaccinations made
1796
Who was Galen
physician who proposed that we release humors with bleeding and purging
Why did the polypharmacists screw up
because plants are generally bad medicine (chinese medicine: lol)
What were the differences between galen, and paracelcus
galen was a polypharmacist who believed in random bullshit go, said disease was from internal imbalance. paracelcus said that disease was from an outside source and monopharmacy (是药三分毒）
Why did monopharmacy favor minerals and metals
They were easier to purify
Why the fuck did people hate alchemists that shit is cool as fuck creation is mutilation to the uneducated
fuck you bitch
Christopher columbus fucked a manatee and then what happened
people got syphillis and then you need to be wrapped in mercury blanket and sweat for 10 days
What were the plants that are actually medicinally useful
opium, quinine, and digitalis. Quinine and digitalis were respectively discovered 1600s to 1200s
How does the extraction of pharmologically active substances advance science
allowed 1806 discovery of morphine, which then turned into diamorphine
How did the dye industry benefit drug discovery industry
Dyes stained neurons allowing scientists to study them, and also allowed for the discovery of atoxyl, an arsenic drug for syphillis. They discovered chrysoidine which was a red dye that had activity against streptococci
What drug followed arsenic drugs
penicillin
When is the golden age of drug discovery
1944
Why are proteins the common drug targets
DNA and RNA are hard to find potent compounds, lipids have low specificity, carbs have toxicity
What types of proteins are common drug targets
Enzymes and receptors
What fits into the active site of the enzyme
Substrates but the products do not fit
What is genomics
study of genes in genome and interactions among them and environment
What is genetics
Study of single genes in isolation
What do cancer genome changes reveal about drugs
Reveal possible drug targets for target identification
What is target validation
Does the identified protein matter to the mechanism of the disease
What are SNPs what do they do
single nucleotide polymorphisms that change appearance, risk for certain diseases, responses to drugs, or can have no effect
How do SNPs contribute to type 2 diabetes
Several SNPs have been associated with a slightly increased risk for type 2 diabetes
How are SNPs that cause disease identified
comparing DNA from patient with healthy individuals, finding differences. This can be used to determine risk for the disease and identify drug target
What are personal genome projects
sequence many people and correlate sequence to health status
What type of target is identified but not validied
When there are possible target genes but its unclear whether or not he genes protein product actually does something for the disease
How can you validate genes
Test with model organisms to see behavior, or use human cells to see changes in behavior like cell growth and cell death.
What are the goals of translational medicene
Identify and invent diagnostic tests, drug and therapeutic development and clinical impact
What are the three Rs in animal research
replacement, reduction, refinement
What is xenographing
Put human tumors into mice that are immunocompromised, so the tumor can be measured and monitored
What is ALS
a progressive and fatal disease that cause motor neurons to break down
How were ALS drugs discovered
Using C. elegans model of motor neuron disease to mimic the genetic cause of ALS
How is anxiety measured in mice
Anxiety medicine reduces amount of time spent in enclused area. Mice prefer dark and enclosed spaces so they would stick to the side of open fields and stay in the dark side of a light/dark box
How long do animal models need to be tested for in preclinical
6 months to 1 year
How do people need to make sure the animal testing is sufficient for human trials
Exaggerated dosing, exaggerated exposure length relative to clinical use
What are types of toxicity end points
Death of proportion of cells/organisms, pathology using a microscope, surrogate measures of organ toxicity by measuring blood or urine.
What is lethal dose 50
it sounds like a really cool name for a tv show or character but really is just the dose to kill 50% of the cells or organism population. units are mg/kg
What questions do in vivo and in vitro experiments answer
in vivo is for living organisms and asks if a drug causes certain problems (safety concern). in vivo is in glass and can biochemical or cell culture experiments to see if the drug damages DNA of bacteria (indirect safety test)
What can cause toxicity
The drug or one of its metbolites
What is an ames assay
Using a strain of bacteria genetically modified to need histidine, if bacteria mutates then the bacteria will be able to grow without histidine. The more growing without histidine, the more mutated
What are the major target organs for toxicity
All major organs
How are stem cell used for drug safety testing
Human stem cell derived heart cells are put through high throughput tests
What are biomarkers
indirect markers of internal state measured objectively. for example if the liver bursts and releases liver specific enzymes
What are the undesired effects considered by toxicology
Allergic reactions, reactivity to standard dose, reversible and irreversible effects, local and systemic effects
why does clinical research need value
To use finite resources responsibly and avoid exploitation
What is clinical equipoise
to be uncertain about whether new treatment is superior or not
What are REBs
Research ethics boards that can be institutional or independent, investigator must submit detailed applications to the local REB for approval
What is a multiple ascending dose study
testing a dosage over many days to see if it accumulates
How do you participate in phase 1 clinical trials
contact contract research organization or hospital where the trial is being conducted
What features of a drug does pharmacokinetics consider
Absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination
What are serious adverse events
Death, life threatening, hospitalization, disability, birth defects, needing invervention to prevent any of the above
What is a washout period
a period of time when you wait for previous drugs to be flushed out of your body
What is sensitivity
fraction of people i think are gay. if i have a high sensitivity gaydar, that means i always categorize gay people as gay (this is true)
What is specificity
fraction of people i think as not gay. if i have a low specificity gaydar, that means i may categorize straight people as gay (this is true)
What are medical signs, differences with symptoms
Signs are objective indications of medical state observed from outside the patient. Biomarkers are an example.
What are medical signs and whats the difference with symptoms
signs are objective indications of medical state observed from outside the patient, like biomarkers. medical symptoms are indications of health or illnness percieved by patients themselves
How do people know in phase 2 that a drug is effective
By using biomarkers. Phase 2 trials are relatively short in duration so biomarkers are relatively well suited for this timeframe
For HIV and AIDs drugs, what are the common biomarkers
Viral load (blood test), high viral load is bad. CD4 cell count. If there is a high number, that is good
What does lurasidone affect (neurotransmitter receptors)
dopamine d2 and serotonin receptor, agonist actions at both
What does lurasidone aim to alleviate
schizophrenia and bipolar. It can be used monotherapy for bipolar depression or adjunctive therapy for bipolar 1
How many people are affected by bipolar, when is the onset
3% of the us patients and 60 million worldwide. The onset is 15-25
How many people are affected by schizophrenia, when is the onset
1% of world population, early onset is late teens and early 20s
What are the doses for phase 1-3 lurasidone
for 1, they did 40 and 120 mg, for trial 2 they did 20, 40, 80. They determined 80 as the most effective for 3.
What is potency
how much drug needed for required affect
What is IC50, why is it used
concentration at which there is 50% max effect. the differences are more significant than 100% or 0% potency
What do different potencies of drugs indicate
Sub nM is scary, low nM is good, high nM is not that good. Low milimoles is bad and high milimoles is you failure lol
What are flavonoids
chemical junk from natural sources that seem healthy but don’t actually do anything
Why is selectivity important
it separates drug from poison because you are preventing the drug from going where it should not. However, not all drugs have this
Are most of our drugs small or biologics
Small
How many people could drug resistance kill by 2050
10 million lives
Why is tuberculosis still a problem
Drug resistance turboculosis has a high cure rate but multi drug restance has a 48% cure rate (basically a 50/50, and considering i won all my genshin ones, its o7 for me lol 没保底了) for extensively drug resistant ones, the cure rate is 34%
Where do antibiotics come from
natural products and screening
What is the biggest problem with dealing with bacteria
Permeability, selectivity isn’t too hard because humans are fundamentally quite different from bacteria. You need to get through a barrier with the consistency of candle wax
Is it impossible to find man mane antibiotics
No, we have cipro, but permeability is hard.
How to target a protein or other target on something not as simple as bacteria?
Some ATP bind loosely to binding sites, creating differences between amino acid sequences. more binding interactions will prevent it from fitting into too many receptors
What can help us find how to better bind to a target
crystal structures to tell us the structure
How much selectivity does a highly potent drug have
200 fold sens
How much sensitivity does a moderately potent drug have
less than 100 fold sens
Why is the liver a pain in the butt
cytochrome p450s oxidise drugs and throws that shit out
How long do you want drugs to be active and how do you keep it active
8 hours, achieved by adding fluorine
Why do you need to understand metabolites
Taking too much would overwhelm normal metabolic route and the alternative metabolite route can be toxic
What is bioavaliability
How much has survived, how much is absorbed in the gut, and how much got through the liver unscathed
What does a large therapeutic window do
allow for more therapeutic responses without toxic ones
What is the relationship between potency and solubility
The more potent the less likely solubility is an issue
What types of drugs are best at dissolving in the digestive track
Polar and charged
What can cause poor permeability
drug not getting through membrane or getting kicked out
After target validation, how do we find what chemicals bind to the protein and change the function
high throughput screening, fragment screening, in silico screening
What are undruggable targets
targets that have nothing to guide us towards
What do you test chemicals on in high throughput screening
enzymes, cells expressing a certain pathway, and on model organisms
What is target based screening
With a known target you look for chemicals that moducate the target or pathway
What is phenotypic screening
Only looking for the desired effect
How can phenotypic screening be more complex than the killing of bacteria
You can look at zebrafish, which are tiny, transparent, easily grown
What is fragment screening
Looking at a library of fragments to combine it to give one full compound
What is activity of a drug
What a drug does (blocks a receptor, for example)
What is efficacy
if it will actually work
Why is it good to have potent drugs
generally less toxicity, less solubility, and less permeability problems
What is on target toxicity
if activating the target will also cause problems, potency won’t help this scenario
What is a pharmacore
part of the structure that bind to the target
how does a pharmacore bind
electronic properties as long as the same bonds form its ok
what does structural extension do
increasing potency by finding extra binding interactions
what does rigidification do
increase potency and selectivity
Are osteoblasts or clasts more common when we are younger
blasts
what do you use for a phenotypic screen
cells instead of targets because you do not know how the drug wors
what is admet
absorption, distribution metabolism, excretion, and toxicology
what is the minimum concentration you need to stay above for many diseases
50 nm
Why do you need higher concentrations than estimated
blood proteins will yoink the proteins
what do permeability assays measure
rate at which a compound passes through a layer of cells
how good does permeability need to be
96% of drugs that act on the brain have >150 nm/sec permeability
why is the brain and bacteria and cancer cells good at yeeting stuff out
p glycoprotein that is an efflux pump. pretty much everything binds to it
what is the efflux ratio, how much is bad
permeability out/permeability in. twice as fast kicked out as going in is bad
when is a drug determined too expensive
over 30000 pounds per year, but anything over 15000 is harmful because it takes money away from essential healthcare services
how much is the most expensive drug, how good is it
3.2 million and it doesn’t do much
what justifies the high prices of the drug discovery industry
no other industry has such a high risk of failure, only 5-10% of drugs that enter clinical trials reach the market, only 1 in 3 make a profit. it costs a lot to make drugs and a lot to market
what happens if a pharma company is not profitable
share price goes down, management fired, company taken over, employees fired
what happens if pharma is too expensive
some companies may reject the patent
when did drugs turn into commodities
early 1980s
When did aids have a first improvement in survival and when was life expectancy normal
improvement was 1995, normal life expectancy was 2007
what could have happened with HIV and why didn’t it
HIV could be eliminated within a generation but poor ART coverage prevented it and fewer than half the people infected got treatment
why did fda approve the expensive alzheimer’s drug
so other people can be motivated to make better ones
how do people make alzheimers drug discovery better
remove money from the equation, force collaboration and open source
how are pharmaceuticals made more affordable in the developing world
patent pools and having rich people donate, no longer pursuing drugs that don’t work that well to prevent phase 3 failures and lower developmental costs. emphasize deisease prevention, detection and diagnosis. link price with GDP and remove advertising from pharmaceuticals
what does gartners hype cycle say
overreaction to immature tech causes naive euphoria, then peak of hype and true user benefits become apparent
what makes a target undraggable
if the drug only has weak binding interactions with a target
why is it hard to find a target
cannot find clear differences between healthy and unhealthy people. hitting a single target may not cure the disease, and ideal target may be essential to other aspects of health
why do you need both lipophilic and polar residues for a druggable target
to get to the target and bind to it
what happened with drug discovery 1900 to 2000
develop drugs from what we have and know, get lucky, talented people free from corporate, anything you make is potentially exciting
how do you get selectivity on adrenoceptors
make subtle changes because they are all slightly different in shape and size
why is it hard to find drugs fromnature
need extraction, there might be various components and have weak activity. might not be possible to get enough from original source
what percent of drugs come from nature
6% are natural products, 28% are modified natural products, 30% mimic natural products
what is type 2 diabetes
high blood sugar and insulin resistance that causes blindness, kidney failure, heart attacks, strokes etc
why is obesity a problem
50% of world population will be overweight or obese in 2035 unless action is taken, children most affected. very expensive too
what drives obesity
dietary preferences, sedentary behavior, weaker policies to control food supply and marketing, not enough resources for weight management and education
What other diseases does obesity influence
depression and arthritis
what drugs were used for weight loss in the 1950s-1960
amphetamines that caused addiction
what happened with fen fen
obesity drug recall after 24years because it damages heart valves. one of the most costly liability cases in history
how does glp1 regulate insulin levels
stimulates insulin secretion and inhibits glucagon secretion to have 2 shots on goal
why do you need gila monsters for diabetic medicine
human glp-1 hormone disappears too quick, but gila monster can go for a long time without food indicating slow digestion
what diseases has glp endocrine processes helped understand
type 2 diabetes, obesity, short bowel syndrome. also propelled the research of neurodegenerative conditions like alzheimers parkinsons and huntingtons
what happened in early clinical studies testing glp 1
people were supposed to eat after treating with glp then check blood glucose. people didn’t want to finish their meal and had low appetite, and thus the clinical study can’t be followed
how are glp agonists different from glp 1
change in amino acids, prevent degredation of peptide, clues from nature
what did the phase 3 clinical trial with semaglutide conclude
people without diabetes who were overweight or obese had weight loss
how are peptides taken
generally not orally, the peptide will be digested if taken orally. oral formulation is developed and mixed with absorption enhancer. needs to be on empty stomach
for the oral semaglutide phase 3 tests, what was concluded about efficacy and side effects
lost 15% weight compared to 2.5% on placebo. GI problems for 80% people compared to 46% on placebo
why do glps have side effects
may accidentally target brain
what is food noise, how is it affected by glp
thinking frequently about food, glp reduces this
what do coronaviruses cause
sars and mers and common cold
what is R0
how contagious a disease is, average # of people who get sick from one infectious person
what platforms are there for covid vaccines
viral vectors which carry virus into the host cell, DNA and RNA which carry genes into cells to make a protein for resistance. or just a protein. killed or attenuated virus that stimulate protein to recognize viruses.
what is a viral vector
modified viruses that deliver genetic code for antigen but do not contain disease causing genes. it can be broken into replicating and nonreplicating types
why did people not find a treatment for sars even though another viral disease would happen sooner or later
development was helted when virus was gone, no commercial reason to continue
what is the sped up covid trial process
used preexisting data from sars, do the clinical phases at once and produce at a risk (during phase 3)
what is the comirnaty vaccine and spikevax vaccine
mRNA encodes spike protein enclosed in liquid nanoparticle, 2 doses 3 weeks apart
what happened in phase 1 comirnaty vaccine
tested safety of 2 different vaccine candidates.
what happened in phase 2 and 3 of the two covid vaccines
tested on 300 and 600 adults. evaluated efficacy against placebo with multiple dosage. chose one dosage for phase 3
what is medicago’s plant based vaccine
virus like particles made in plants, harvested and purified. it is 71% efficacious against covid
what is novovax
an old vaccine used for omicron, contains spike proteins from insect cells and immune system stimulant
how are small molecule drugs discovered
repurposing drugs: using existing drug or preclinical chemical compound
why is drug repurposing good
you might not need phase 1 retests, existing pharma supply chains could help make it
what is a pharmakinetic booster
compound used with primary therapeutic agent that enhances the activity of primary agent, allows for lower dosage of primary agent. reduces pull burden and extent of toxic side effects
what happened with paxlovid trials
stopped early due to benefit
what is long covid
symptoms for more than 12 weeks after infection
what percent of people experience long covid
15%
what can long covid affect
heart, lungs, pancrease, immune system, GI tract, neurological system, kidney spleen liver, blood vessels, reproductive system
what are possibilities for the causes of long covid
neurological signalling changes, bacteria in gut shifted from covid, immune cells are primed differently.
what prevents long covid
vaccination against covid
what is being tested for long covid clinical trials
antibodies, oral pills to treat heart rate, high salt diet.
what is pharmocodynamics
biochemical pathways and physiological effects. drug efficacy, toxicity and choice of treatment (what the drug does in the body)
what does pharmacokinetics concern
dose, delivery, dosage regimen
what are pharmalogical consequences of drug metabolism
inactivation, activating pro drug to active product, maintenance of activity, and increased chemical reactivity
what metabolizes small organic molecules
drug metabolizing enzymes
what are her 2 receptors in breast cancer
receptors that make cells grow faster
how does herceptin work
attach to her2 receptors to block from recieving growth signals
use smoking to indicate the importance of personalized medicine
depending on nicotine metabolization rate, different treatments are suitable
how to get info for personalized medicene regarding patient
genotype patient and thent he digital info becomes centralized
what is the money challenge for personalized medicine
less money earned if drug is directed towards small subset of cancer patients
why is personalized medicine important for hepatitis c
it is curable bud ifferent drugs for different genotypes, which differ accross the world. some work for all genotupes
what is project gradient
explores link between genetic diversity and response to malaria and TB drugs
where do biologics come from
the natural world
what is the difference between small drugs and biologics
small drugs are chemically synthesized in lab, biologics are made from living cells or organisms. biologics are less easily characterized and has many critical process steps. they are often injected or infused and dispensed by doctors or hospitals, compared to by retail pharmacies
what is the first peptide biologic
insulin
what are allogenic and autologous cell therapies
allogenic is from another person, autologous is from yourself
what does stem cell therapy aim to do for parkinsons
transplanted will form neural networks that restore motor and non motor function to patients
what is an antibody
proteins that help us fight against pathogen. antigens on antibodies will bind to pathogens to eliminate it
how is an antibody structured
as a y, with a variable region that recognizes antigen and constant region that determines how to destroy the antigen
what are polyclonal and monoclonal antibodies
polyclonal are a complex mixture of antibodies that recognizes and binds to different areas on the antigen
what are monoclonal antibodies
identical antibodies from a single antibody producing cell, only binds to specific site on the antigen
why do you need antibody engineering and how do you do it
mouse antibodies may be different and cause adverse reactions or cytokines destory the antibodies. recombinant allows the mouse monochromal antibody to fuse with the human one
what is the traditional treatment for snakebite
immunize horses and cows to produce antibodies
what did mice tests reveal about snake bite antibodies
there is a window of opportunity and antivenoms are effective.
what are the issues with biologics, good and bad
more selective than small molecules, less toxic, potential for immunotoxicity (unique biologic toxicity), and has a long half life. has high specificity but high cost
what are common characteristics of specialty drugs
expensive, needs specialized handing, administration, for complex and rare diseases and often biologics. very profitable
why are specialty drugs so expensive
more expensive to make, small target populations
how does remicade stop autoimmune diseases
these diseases come from the immune system attacking itself. remicade inactivates the factor that causes inflammation
what are biosimilars and how are they different from small molecule drug generics
similar to innovator with comparable quality efficacy and safety, but is not the exact same as the biologic. generics are considered bioequivalent
for what diseases are gene diseases most effective, how is it effective
when the mechanism involves a single gene, it changes or adds a healthy copy of a gene to improve patient health
how did they test gene therapy for eyes
used a naturally occuring viral vector with less people (because there isn’t enough). tested by making them do a maze in a low light environment
how does crispr gene therapy seek to fix hemaglobin for sickle cell
they get gamma hemoglobin to replace beta
what is different between gene therapy and small molecule drugs
gene therapies are expensive, potentially curative with possible side effects and have only few approvals
what is esketamine and what does it do for depression
it is a rapid acting analogue of ketamine that affects neuroplasticity and is taken as a nasal spray under medical supervision with less suicidal side effects than SSRIs. The target is in neuron communication
What is geprione and how is it better than traditional SSRIs
agonist at serotonin 1A and antagonist at serotonin 2A, has extended release and reduced side effects
what is the forced swim test and what is the problem with it
mice swim for 5 min and sometimes give up, which is used to indicate depression. it is traditionally used to test antidepressant drugs but not used because you need to justify it.
what are alternative tests for testing rodent depression
enjoyment of life by consumption of sugar water, healthy sleeping patterns and resilience to stress by interactions with a larger mouse
why is antidepressant testing a pain in the butt
the drug may treat some subtypes of depression but not others. There is high variability in the patient population and high placebo response rates. not easy to measure with self reported, subjective responses.
what did the psilocybin and niacin results indicate about psilocybin
that it is clinically significant in reducing depressive symptoms
how does lsd help anxiety
serotonin 2a agonist that binds to dopamine d1 and d2. trip persists after the drug is gone. clinical trials did not observe bad trips. LSD is hard to make with high purity, so the high purity might have prevented bad trips.
what are the benefits of LSD for anxiety
it is fast acting and has durable activity, with significant remission and less side effects. monotherapy works.
what are the problems with drug research in pregnancy
need to weigh in health of mother and fetus. there are different physiology and pharmacology aspects and reproductive toxicology studies are expensive. most drugs don’t have enough safety data for pregnancy use
what do fda pregnancy exposure registries do
collect info on women who used the drug and women who did not during pregnancy to update safety info
what did postpartum depression drug approvals reveal about post partum depression
it is not the same as major depressive disorder and has different biology. it is active very quickly though
what is the problem with having children in drug research
patient recruitment, consent, pharmokinetic differences in children, and ethical issues
what happened in the cystic fibrosis test in children
unprecedented improvement in lung function and exciting prospect. both lung function and quality of life are improved.
what is the pediatric exclusivity provision
FDA incentivizing to conduct pharmacokinetic studies in children trials, useful when the drug would pose a serious risk. generally millions of dollars in profits due to extended patent life.
how do machines learn
you give examples, then the machine categorizes the stuff for you. you don’t provide the labels
what is ineffable
when something is too great or extreme to be put into words
how can ai help for in silico drug discovery
use known inhibitors to train the computers and predict a structure that will predict inhibitors and test chemicals in a lab
how can ai help for identifying drug targets
using ai to study protein-protein interactions, seeing if drug repurposing could change this interaction. First find protein-protein interactions then see which are druggable
what variables do you need to predict the pharmacokinetics of a drug
physiology (blood flow, body fat, etc), drug’s chemical properties, drug-specific clinical info. also other meds, food or empty stomach, disease status (limited organ function) and age
how can clinical trials be conducted inside a computer
using things like hummod that creates 10000 variables
what does trial pathfinder do
expand inclusion criteria for cancer clinical trials
