Final - Textbook Flashcards
1
Q
What are the four aspects of emotion?
A
Subjective mental state, cognition, behaviors, and physiological changes.
2
Q
What are emotions, and what role do they play in our responses?
A
Emotions are evolved programs that guide responses to daily threats and opportunities, ranging from joy to fear and loathing.
3
Q
How is emotion linked with motivation?
A
Emotion drives behavior; for example, happiness may lead to friendliness, while anger or anxiety may motivate hostile behavior.
4
Q
How does the autonomic nervous system relate to emotion?
A
The sympathetic nervous system activates the body for action (fight-or-flight), while the parasympathetic nervous system prepares it to relax and recuperate.
5
Q
What is the James-Lange theory of emotion?
A
It suggests that emotions are caused by bodily changes—e.g., we feel fear because we perceive physiological responses like a racing heart.
6
Q
Why did attempts to link specific emotions to distinct bodily responses mostly fail?
A
Because multiple emotions, like fear, surprise, and anger, share similar physiological patterns.
7
Q
What does the Cannon-Bard theory propose about emotions?
A
The brain decides which emotion is appropriate, rather than emotions being solely based on physiological changes.
the cerebral cortex simultaneously decides on the appropriate emotional experience (fear, surprise, joy) and activates the autonomic nervous system to appropriately prepare the body, using either the parasympathetic system to help the body relax, or the sympathetic system to ready the body for action
8
Q
What is individual response stereotypy?
A
The characteristic pattern of emotional reactivity and physiological responses that remains stable throughout life.
9
Q
How early in life do individual differences in emotional responsiveness appear?
A
As early as the newborn stage.
10
Q
What did Kagan’s (2018) research find about sensitive newborns?
A
They were more likely to develop anxiety disorders later in life.
11
Q
How does individual response stereotypy relate to PTSD risk in children?
A
Highly sensitive children are at greater risk of developing PTSD after exposure to war and trauma.
12
Q
What did Charles Darwin propose about emotional expressions in humans and animals?
A
He suggested that certain emotional expressions are universal and may have originated from a common ancestor.
13
Q
What observation did Redican (1982) make about nonhuman primates?
A
They exhibit distinct facial expressions that may signal emotional states, like the chimpanzee’s “play face,” which resembles human laughter.
14
Q
How do rats and mice contribute to our understanding of emotional expressions?
A
Rats emit ultrasonic vocalizations resembling laughter when tickled, and mice display subtle, distinct emotion-related facial expressions.
15
Q
What neural mechanism is associated with empathy in mice?
A
A distinct neural pathway in the mouse brain becomes active when observing emotional cues in other mice.
16
Q
Why did emotions evolve from an evolutionary perspective?
A
Emotions evolved as adaptive programs that help individuals survive and reproduce by guiding perception, attention, cognition, and action in response to different situations.
17
Q
How does fear function as an evolved survival mechanism?
A
Fear shifts focus to avoiding danger and seeking safety while preparing the body for fight or flight by suppressing other activities like eating or sleeping.
18
Q
What is an example of an emotion that helps prevent disease?
A
Disgust for body fluids helps individuals avoid exposure to germs.
19
Q
How might our tendency to judge others’ appearances have evolved?
A
It may be an overgeneralization of mechanisms that evolved to recognize threats or danger from others.
20
Q
What are the eight basic emotions in Plutchik’s (2001) model?
A
joy/sadness, affection/disgust, anger/fear, and expectation/surprise.
21
Q
Why is there debate over the number of basic emotions?
A
Researchers disagree on whether there are six, seven, or eight basic emotions, and different classification systems exist.
22
Q
What emotions did Paul Ekman and collaborators identify as having distinctive facial expressions?
A
Anger, sadness, happiness, fear, disgust, surprise, contempt, and embarrassment.
23
Q
How do facial expressions support cross-cultural communication?
A
Many facial expressions are interpreted similarly across cultures without explicit training, suggesting they are biologically rooted.
24
Q
What did studies of the Fore people in New Guinea reveal about emotional facial expressions?
A
They show similar facial expressions to those of industrialized societies, suggesting cross-cultural similarity in emotional expression.
25
Why do some isolated groups not fully agree with Westerners on identifying certain facial expressions?
Different cultures may have developed distinct ways of expressing some emotions.
26
What is the role of cultural conditioning in facial expressions of emotion?
Cultures prescribe rules for facial expressions and enforce them through social norms and conditioning.
27
Which two cranial nerves control facial muscle movements for expression?
The facial nerve (VII) controls superficial facial muscles, and the motor branch of the trigeminal nerve (V) controls jaw movement.
28
What is the facial feedback hypothesis?
The idea that sensory feedback from facial expressions can influence emotions, supporting the James-Lange theory of emotion.
29
How has research tested the facial feedback hypothesis?
Studies found that people simulating a smile (e.g., holding a pencil between their teeth) reported feeling more positive emotions.
30
How might Botox-induced facial muscle paralysis support the facial feedback hypothesis?
It alters brain activity in regions processing emotional faces, suggesting facial expressions play a role in emotional processing.
31
What potential negative effect can forced emotional expressions have?
Being forced to display false emotions in stressful situations may harm well-being and job satisfaction.
32
What is brain self-stimulation?
The phenomenon where animals and humans press a lever to stimulate certain brain regions, like the septum, producing pleasure or warmth.
33
What is the medial forebrain bundle?
A large axon tract that ascends from the midbrain through the hypothalamus and is involved in the brain's reward system.
34
What role does the nucleus accumbens play in the brain's reward system?
It is a major component of the reward circuitry where dopamine release produces pleasurable feelings.
35
Why are drugs of abuse addictive according to neurobiological research?
They artificially activate dopaminergic circuits that normally respond to naturally pleasurable behaviors like eating or sex.
36
What is decorticate rage?
Sudden, intense, and undirected aggression seen in animals after the removal of their cortex, suggesting emotional behaviors are organized at a subcortical level.
37
What is the limbic system, and why is it important?
A set of interconnected brain regions (e.g., amygdala, hippocampus, hypothalamus) involved in regulating emotions.
38
What is Klüver-Bucy syndrome?
A behavioral disorder seen in monkeys after temporal lobe removal, characterized by a loss of fear, excessive oral tendencies, and inappropriate sexual behavior.
39
Which brain structure is key in Klüver-Bucy syndrome, particularly in fear responses?
The amygdala, as its destruction leads to a loss of fear and aggression.
40
What is fear conditioning?
A form of classical conditioning where a neutral stimulus (e.g., light or sound) is paired with an aversive stimulus (e.g., shock) to elicit fear responses.
41
What brain structure is key in emotional learning and fear conditioning?
The amygdala, which helps form associations between emotions and memories.
42
What happens when the central nucleus of the amygdala is lesioned?
It prevents blood pressure increases and freezing behavior in response to conditioned fear stimuli.
43
What are the “low road” and “high road” pathways to the amygdala?
Low road: A direct, fast pathway from the thalamus to the amygdala, bypassing conscious processing for immediate emotional responses.
High road: A slower, conscious pathway through the sensory cortex, allowing for more detailed processing and integration with cognition.
44
What is Capgras delusion, and how might it relate to the amygdala?
A condition where individuals believe loved ones have been replaced by impostors, possibly due to damage affecting the “low road” connection between visual stimuli and emotions.
45
What evidence suggests that the amygdala processes fear responses rapidly?
When people view fearful faces, their amygdala responds more quickly than the visual cortex, showing the privileged access of fear stimuli.
46
How does temporal lobe epilepsy relate to fear?
Some individuals experience intense fear during seizures, likely due to disruption of inhibitory inputs from the prefrontal cortex to the amygdala.
47
How does the amygdala contribute to PTSD and anxiety disorders?
Learned fears are difficult to extinguish, and the amygdala plays a role in reactivating traumatic memories and fear responses in PTSD.
48
Who is patient S.M., and why is she significant to fear research?
A woman with a rare genetic condition that causes calcium buildup in the amygdala, leading to a complete lack of fear responses.
49
What is the "affectome"?
The network diagram of emotional processing in the human brain, which maps the regions and their interconnections involved in emotions.
50
What brain regions are implicated in emotional processing according to early research on love and friendship?
The insula, anterior cingulate cortex, posterior cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex. Love, compared to friendship, involves increased activity in the insula and anterior cingulate, and decreased activity in the posterior cingulate and prefrontal cortices.
51
How is the amygdala involved in romantic love?
The amygdala shows reduced activity when contemplating romantic partners, reflecting its role in fear reduction during love.
52
What brain region is implicated in emotional awareness and is associated with alexithymia?
The anterior insular cortex, whose dysfunction is linked to impairments in emotional awareness, called alexithymia.
53
What did the study by Damasio et al. (2000) reveal about emotions and brain activity?
Emotions are associated with differential activation patterns across various brain regions, rather than being linked to a specific brain center (e.g., no “happy center” or “sad center”).
54
Which brain regions are involved in a variety of emotions according to Damasio’s research?
The insula, cingulate cortex, and prefrontal cortex are commonly activated across different emotions.
55
How do different emotions share brain activation patterns?
Although distinct emotions like sadness, happiness, and anger are associated with different patterns of activation, there is overlap, such as altered cingulate cortex activity in sadness, happiness, and anger.
56
How is aggression defined?
Aggression is behavior intended to cause pain or harm (physical or emotional) to others, either individually or in groups.
57
What are some forms of aggression other than physical assault?
Verbal and symbolic aggression, such as name-calling, horn honking, and angry glares.
58
What is intermale aggression, and why is it common in many species?
Intermale aggression refers to aggression between males of the same species. It is often adaptive for gaining access to food and mates.
59
How is aggression observed in chimpanzees?
Male chimpanzees sometimes form groups to kill a rival male, increasing their chances of mating in the future.
60
What pattern of aggression is seen in humans, specifically among boys and girls?
Aggressive behavior between boys, but not girls, is evident early in childhood, especially in the form of vigorous and destructive play behavior.
61
What percentage of assault and murder arrests in the USA in 2019 involved males?
About 75% of people arrested for assault were male, and nearly 90% of murder arrests were male.
62
How does testosterone influence aggression in males?
Testosterone is thought to make males more aggressive, as it prepares them for reproduction and is linked to aggression for gaining food and mates.
63
What is the relationship between testosterone and aggression in humans?
The relationship is complicated. Some studies show a weak correlation between testosterone and aggression, with individual differences, personality traits, and androgen receptor efficiency playing a role.
64
What happens to aggression when testosterone levels increase or decrease in animals?
As testosterone levels rise at sexual maturity, intermale aggression increases. Removing testosterone (e.g., castration) reduces aggression, and restoring testosterone can restore aggressive behavior.
65
What role does the medial amygdala play in aggression?
The medial amygdala analyzes olfactory and pheromonal information, allowing male rats and mice to distinguish between rivals to be attacked and females to be courted.
66
How does the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) contribute to aggression?
The VMH triggers aggressive behavior. Optogenetic activation of VMH neurons can cause males to suddenly attack females, while inhibition reduces the likelihood of attack.
67
How does the brain's circadian clock affect aggression?
The suprachiasmatic nucleus, the brain's circadian clock, regulates the daily variation in aggression seen in many species, including humans.
68
How does maternal aggression in females differ from male aggression?
Maternal aggression in females, especially when caring for their young, is controlled by neural circuits in the VMH, preoptic area (POA), premammillary nucleus, and a serotonergic projection from the midbrain.
69
What is the controversy surrounding the role of temporal lobe disorders in human violence?
There is debate about whether some forms of human violence are caused by temporal lobe disorders, as aggression is sometimes a prominent symptom in people with temporal lobe seizures.
70
What characterizes psychopathy in terms of behavior and brain function?
Psychopathy is marked by impulsivity, superficial charm, poor self-control, and lack of remorse. Brain-imaging studies show abnormalities in emotion processing networks, impairing empathy and impulsive behavior inhibition.
71
How do psychopathic individuals react to violent or fearful stimuli?
Psychopathic individuals show blunted responses to violence or accident scenes and have reduced reactions to aversive cues associated with fear conditioning.
72
What are some criticisms of biological studies of aggression?
Critics argue that emphasizing biological factors may overlook preventable causes of violence, such as poverty and child neglect, but some believe that addressing biological issues might improve the quality of life for violent individuals.
73
How might serotonin-related treatments help violent individuals?
Treatments that enhance serotonin activity, such as those used to treat anxiety and depression, might help reduce aggression and assist in psychotherapeutic intervention.
74
How did Hans Selye define stress, and how has the understanding of stress evolved?
Hans Selye defined stress as "the rate of all the wear and tear caused by life." Today, stress is viewed as a multidimensional concept, encompassing stressful stimuli, the stress-processing system, and responses to stress.
75
What is allostasis, and how does the brain contribute to stress responses?
Allostasis refers to the process of adjusting the body to accommodate current and anticipated stressors. The brain monitors and controls these responses, making this a metabolically costly process.
76
What happens during the initial alarm reaction to stress?
The hypothalamus activates the sympathetic nervous system, triggering the adrenal medulla to release epinephrine and norepinephrine. These hormones prepare the body for action by boosting heart rate, breathing, and other physiological processes.
77
How does the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis contribute to the stress response?
The hypothalamus stimulates the anterior pituitary to release ACTH, which then activates the adrenal cortex to release cortisol and other adrenal corticosteroids. These hormones prepare the body for action and release energy stores.
78
How do glucocorticoid receptors relate to stress and memory?
Glucocorticoid receptors, which respond to cortisol, are found in many brain areas and facilitate memory formation related to stress and fear, while also regulating stress hormone secretion through negative feedback.
79
What did the study of young recruits in the Norwegian military reveal about hormonal responses to stress?
The study showed that hormonal responses to stress (e.g., cortisol, epinephrine, norepinephrine, and testosterone) were elevated before the first parachute jumps but decreased over time as the recruits adapted to the stressor.
80
How does factory work and crowded commuting affect hormone levels?
Factory work leads to the release of epinephrine, with higher levels when the work cycle is shorter. Similarly, riding in a crowded commuter train also causes a release of epinephrine, with longer and more crowded trips provoking a greater hormonal response.
81
What effect does stress during academic exams have on the brain?
Stress from a PhD oral exam leads to a significant increase in epinephrine and norepinephrine. Medical students stressed by licensing exam preparation show fMRI evidence of impaired attention control, which returns to normal after the exam.
82
How can early life stress impact health, especially in young people with asthma?
Young people with asthma who experience stress from peer rejection or family conflict show a more responsive adrenal system, more severe respiratory symptoms, and impaired expression of anti-inflammatory genes.
83
How does early life stress impact future health?
Childhood stress can have a lasting impact on neural and cognitive development, emotional regulation, and lifetime achievement, influencing health into later life.
84
What is "stress immunization," and how does it relate to early experience?
"Stress immunization" refers to the phenomenon where early life stress, when followed by comfort and care (like maternal licking and grooming in rats), helps animals become more resilient to adult stress.
85
How does maternal deprivation affect stress responses later in life?
Deprivation of maternal attention leads to increased stress responses, difficulty in learning, altered stress hormone receptor expression in the hippocampus, and reduced hippocampal neurogenesis in adulthood.
86
What evidence is there that early abuse leads to lasting changes in stress responses in humans?
Brain examination of suicide victims showed epigenetic changes in adrenal steroid receptor expression, specifically in those with a history of childhood abuse or neglect, making them less able to handle stress and more likely to develop psychiatric disturbances.
87
What role do psychological, behavioral, and social factors play in susceptibility to illness?
Psychosomatic medicine studies how factors like hostility, depression, loneliness, and stress affect individual susceptibility to illness, including heart disease. Health psychology emphasizes the role of social factors in health progression.
88
How does the brain influence the immune system?
Psychological and neurological factors influence immune responses. For example, people with positive social lives and lower stress are less likely to get sick when exposed to viruses, and they produce more antibodies in response to vaccinations.
89
How does stress and depression affect immune function?
Stress and depression can compromise immune function, increasing susceptibility to infectious diseases, cancer, and autoimmune disorders.
90
How does perceived stress affect the immune system during exams?
Students who perceive their academic program as stressful show greater immune system suppression. In an experiment, dental students' healing was slower during exam periods, taking 40% longer, and their immunological response declined by 68%.
91
What role do microglia play in the brain and how are they related to COVID-19?
Microglia are brain-resident macrophages, immune cells that help protect the brain. Dysfunction in microglia can lead to harmful inflammatory responses and is a key pathway by which COVID-19 infection can cause lasting “brain fog” in some individuals.
92
How does chronic stress affect the immune system?
Chronic stress suppresses the immune system by increasing the release of adrenal steroids like cortisol, which directly impair immune function.
93
Why might suppressing the immune system during stress be evolutionarily advantageous?
Suppressing the immune system during stress may conserve energy for immediate survival needs. For example, when a zebra is injured by a lion, suppressing immunity allows energy to be used for escaping, while healing and immune responses are delayed until safety is achieved.
94
How do adrenal steroids help during stress?
Adrenal steroids like cortisol suppress inflammation and swelling, particularly in injuries, helping the individual remain mobile and capable of escaping the threat. This temporary suppression of immune responses is crucial for survival in immediate danger.
95
Why is the diagnosis of psychiatric disorders debated?
Unlike other diseases, mental disorders are diagnosed based on behavioral symptoms rather than physiological measurements.
96
What standardized system is used for diagnosing psychiatric disorders?
The DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition, Text Revision) by the American Psychiatric Association.
97
What percentage of people globally are affected by a major psychiatric disorder at any given time?
More than 12 percent.
98
What percentage of U.S. adults experience some degree of psychiatric symptoms each year?
Almost 20 percent (1 in 5 people).
99
What percentage of U.S. adults have psychiatric symptoms severe enough to prevent major life activities?
More than 4 percent (almost 10 million people).
100
Why do 18-to-25-year-olds have higher rates of mental illness?
Certain psychiatric disorders, like schizophrenia, tend to appear in adolescence and young adulthood.
101
Which gender is more likely to experience depression?
Females.
102
Which gender is more likely to experience drug dependency and alcoholism?
Males.
103
What was paralytic dementia originally believed to be caused by?
“Weak character.”
104
What was later discovered to be the true cause of paralytic dementia?
Syphilis.
105
How did the discovery of antibiotics impact paralytic dementia?
Antibiotics cured syphilis, making paralytic dementia a thing of the past.
106
How did the link between syphilis and mental illness influence psychiatry?
It led researchers to explore whether other psychiatric disorders had physiological origins.
107
What is schizophrenia?
A disorder characterized by hallucinations, delusions, emotional changes, and cognitive impairments, sometimes lasting a lifetime.
108
Why is schizophrenia a public health issue?
Many people with schizophrenia become homeless.
109
What is the origin of the term schizophrenia?
It comes from Greek: schizein (“to split”) and phren (“mind”), originally describing a split in mental functions.
110
What are the major symptom categories of schizophrenia?
(1) Auditory hallucinations, (2) highly personalized delusions, (3) changes in affect, and (4) cognitive impairments.
111
What are positive symptoms of schizophrenia?
Symptoms that are present but should not be, such as hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thought.
112
What are negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Characteristics that are absent but should be present, such as lack of emotional expression and social withdrawal.
113
What are cognitive symptoms of schizophrenia?
Problems with processing information, such as memory issues, poor attention span, and difficulty making decisions.
114
What is the difference between positive and negative symptoms of schizophrenia?
Positive symptoms involve abnormal behaviors that have been gained, while negative symptoms involve the loss of typical functioning.
115
What does the variation in schizophrenia symptoms suggest?
Multiple neural mechanisms are involved in the disorder.
116
Is schizophrenia heritable?
Yes, it has a genetic component, but its inheritance is complex and involves multiple genes.
117
What do family studies reveal about schizophrenia?
The risk of schizophrenia is higher among relatives and increases with genetic closeness.
118
Why are family studies of schizophrenia limited?
They cannot separate hereditary and environmental influences.
119
What do adoption studies reveal about schizophrenia?
Biological parents of adoptees with schizophrenia are more likely to have had the disorder than adoptive parents, confirming a genetic factor.
120
What do twin studies reveal about schizophrenia?
They show that schizophrenia has both genetic and environmental origins.
121
What is the concordance rate for schizophrenia in identical (monozygotic) twins?
About 50%, meaning if one twin has schizophrenia, the other has a 50% chance of developing it.
122
What is the concordance rate for schizophrenia in fraternal (dizygotic) twins?
About 17%, which is similar to the risk among non-twin siblings.
123
What does the difference in concordance rates between monozygotic and dizygotic twins suggest?
A strong genetic component in schizophrenia.
124
Why does schizophrenia not have a 100% concordance rate in identical twins?
Environmental factors also play a significant role in the development of schizophrenia.
125
What developmental differences are often seen in identical twins discordant for schizophrenia?
The affected twin often has lower birth weight, early physiological distress, and more submissive or sensitive behavior.
126
What neurological signs are common in people with schizophrenia and their relatives?
Impaired motor coordination and difficulty with smooth eye movements when tracking a moving target.
127
How many genes have been linked to schizophrenia susceptibility?
Over 100 genes spread across various human chromosomes.
128
What is the DISC1 gene, and how is it related to schizophrenia?
The disrupted in schizophrenia 1 (DISC1) gene is involved in synaptic plasticity, and certain variations of it have been linked to schizophrenia susceptibility.
129
How does paternal age affect schizophrenia risk?
Children fathered by older men have a greater risk, likely due to accumulated mutations in sperm cells.
130
Why do older fathers have a higher chance of passing on schizophrenia-related mutations?
Their sperm undergoes more cell divisions, increasing the likelihood of DNA copying errors.
131
What is the main conclusion from genetic studies on schizophrenia?
Certain genes can increase the risk, but environmental factors also play a crucial role.
132
How does prenatal stress influence the likelihood of developing schizophrenia?
Infection during pregnancy, maternal diabetes, blood type incompatibility, and low birth weight increase the risk.
133
What pregnancy complications are associated with an increased risk of schizophrenia?
Oxygen deprivation during birth and maternal infections during pregnancy.
134
What do prenatal and early-life stressors suggest about schizophrenia development?
Even minor developmental stressors can influence whether schizophrenia manifests later in life.
135
How does urban living relate to schizophrenia risk?
Growing up or living in an urban environment increases vulnerability to schizophrenia.
136
What is the interaction between genetics and stress in schizophrenia?
Schizophrenia develops in genetically susceptible individuals when exposed to environmental stressors during critical developmental periods.
137
How does schizophrenia alter brain development?
It accelerates the normal thinning of cortical gray matter due to synapse rearrangement.
138
What potential future approaches could help prevent schizophrenia?
Combining brain imaging, genetic screening, and behavioral measures to identify at-risk children and intervene early.
139
What structural brain changes are seen in people with schizophrenia?
CT and MRI scans reveal significant anatomical differences in the brains of many individuals with schizophrenia.
140
What do brain scans suggest about schizophrenia’s causes?
They confirm that genes alone do not determine schizophrenia; environmental factors also play a role.
141
What brain abnormalities are commonly found in schizophrenia?
Ventricular abnormalities, which indicate structural and functional changes in the brain.
142
How does prenatal stress influence schizophrenia risk?
Prenatal stress, such as infection, maternal diabetes, or low birth weight, increases the likelihood of developing schizophrenia later in life.
143
What role does oxygen deprivation during pregnancy play in schizophrenia?
Oxygen deprivation during pregnancy increases the probability of developing schizophrenia due to its impact on brain development.
144
How does urban living relate to schizophrenia risk?
Urban living in childhood and adulthood is associated with increased vulnerability to schizophrenia.
145
What is a key structural brain difference seen in schizophrenia?
Many people with schizophrenia have enlarged cerebral ventricles, particularly the lateral ventricles.
146
What does ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia indicate?
Since overall brain size is not affected, enlarged ventricles suggest a loss of brain tissue, particularly in limbic system structures like the hippocampus and amygdala.
147
What evidence suggests a genetic link to ventricular enlargement in schizophrenia?
The schizophrenia-associated DISC1 gene mutation in mice leads to enlarged lateral ventricles, similar to those seen in people with schizophrenia.
148
What is the hypofrontality hypothesis in schizophrenia?
The hypothesis suggests that the frontal lobes are underactive in people with schizophrenia, leading to cognitive impairments.
149
What was the purpose of lobotomy in schizophrenia treatment?
Lobotomy was used to sever frontal lobe connections in an attempt to treat schizophrenia, but it often left patients permanently incapacitated.
150
What drug replaced lobotomy in treating schizophrenia?
Chlorpromazine (Thorazine), discovered in the 1950s, replaced lobotomy as it effectively reduced positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
151
What is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia?
It suggests that schizophrenia results from excess dopamine activity, either due to increased dopamine release or an overabundance of dopamine receptors.
152
How do first-generation antipsychotics work?
They block dopamine D2 receptors, reducing positive symptoms like hallucinations and delusions.
153
What is the main difference between first-generation and second-generation antipsychotics?
First-generation antipsychotics primarily block D2 dopamine receptors, while second-generation antipsychotics target serotonin receptors (5-HT2A) and other neurotransmitters.
154
Why is the dopamine hypothesis of schizophrenia incomplete?
Symptoms take weeks to improve despite rapid dopamine receptor blocking, and about 30% of patients do not respond to dopamine antagonists.
155
What are some concerns about long-term antipsychotic drug use?
While they relieve symptoms, some studies suggest long-term use may not prevent relapse, and second-generation drugs can cause weight gain.
156
What alternative schizophrenia treatments are being explored?
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) to manage stress and peer support networks, like the Hearing Voices Movement, to help individuals accept their experiences.
157
What is the glutamate hypothesis of schizophrenia?
The glutamate hypothesis suggests that schizophrenia results from defective glutamate neurotransmission, possibly accounting for reduced frontal cortex activity.
158
What drug led to the development of the glutamate hypothesis?
Phencyclidine (PCP), a potent psychotomimetic that produces both positive and negative symptoms similar to schizophrenia.
159
How does PCP affect neurotransmission?
PCP acts as an NMDA receptor antagonist, blocking the NMDA receptor’s central calcium channel and preventing glutamate from exerting its effects.
160
What schizophrenia-like effects did PCP cause in animal studies?
Monkeys treated with PCP for two weeks exhibited schizophrenia-like symptoms, including poor performance on tests sensitive to prefrontal damage.
161
Why can’t NMDA receptor agonists be used as antipsychotic drugs?
Because stimulating NMDA receptors directly can lead to seizures.
162
What alternative approach are researchers exploring to enhance glutamatergic activity?
Targeting metabotropic glutamate receptors (mGluRs), which have at least eight different subtypes, to develop a third generation of antipsychotics.
163
What is clinical depression?
Clinical depression is characterized by an unhappy mood, loss of interest, reduced energy, changes in appetite and sleep patterns, and loss of pleasure in most activities. It may also include difficulty concentrating, restlessness, and pervasive pessimism.
164
How common is clinical depression in the U.S.?
More than 7% of American adults experience at least one episode of clinically significant depression each year.
165
What demographic is most affected by depression?
Depression is more common in people over 40, especially women, but it can affect individuals of any age, race, or ethnicity.
166
How is depression linked to suicide?
Depression can be lethal as it increases the risk of suicide. Many suicides appear to be impulsive acts triggered by crises that could have been temporary.
167
What is evidence that suicide prevention measures work?
94% of people prevented from jumping off the Golden Gate Bridge did not later die by suicide.
Suicide rates in Great Britain decreased by a third after switching from coal gas to natural gas.
Firearm legislation with waiting periods can reduce suicide rates in some regions.
168
What are some warning signs of suicide?
Talking about wanting to die or hurt oneself
Seeking access to means of suicide
Feelings of hopelessness, rage, or uncontrolled anger
Increased reckless behavior, drug use, or withdrawal from social life
Drastic mood changes and loss of purpose in life
169
How does genetics influence depression?
Depression has a hereditary component, with identical twins having a 40% concordance rate compared to 20% for fraternal twins. No single gene has been identified; rather, multiple genes and environmental factors contribute.
170
How does the brain change with depression?
Increased activity in the amygdala (emotional processing) and frontal lobes (cognitive tasks)
Decreased activity in the parietal, posterior temporal cortex, and anterior cingulate cortex
Dysfunction in the lateral habenula, which may act as an "antireward center"
Reduced hippocampal volume and impaired stress hormone regulation
171
What are common treatments for depression?
Electroconvulsive Therapy (ECT): Used for severe, drug-resistant cases, possibly promoting neuroplasticity.
Repetitive Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation (rTMS): Non-invasive method affecting cortical activity.
Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS): Mild electrical stimulation of limbic system targets for resistant depression.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Corrects negative thinking and interpersonal issues, often combined with medication.
Medication: Includes SSRIs, SNRIs, and experimental treatments like ketamine and psychedelics.
172
Why do more women than men experience depression?
Women are twice as likely as men to develop major depression. Potential reasons include life experiences, hormonal changes (e.g., postpartum depression), and differences in treatment-seeking behavior.
173
What is postpartum depression?
A type of depression that occurs before or after childbirth, affecting about 1 in 7 women. It can impact maternal-infant bonding and child well-being. CBT is the safest treatment, though SSRIs may also be used with caution.
174
What is the monoamine hypothesis of depression?
This hypothesis suggests that depression results from insufficient stimulation of monoamine neurotransmitters (norepinephrine, dopamine, serotonin). Medications like SSRIs increase serotonin levels but take weeks to show effects, suggesting a complex underlying mechanism.
175
What are some emerging treatments for depression?
Ketamine: Provides rapid relief for some individuals.
Psychedelic drugs: Psilocybin and LSD show potential for alleviating depression.
Novel antidepressants: Researchers aim to develop drugs mimicking the benefits of psychedelics without hallucinogenic effects.
176
How effective is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT)?
CBT is as effective as SSRIs and has a lower relapse rate. Combining CBT with medication enhances outcomes.
177
What is the role of animal models in depression research?
Animal models help researchers understand depression mechanisms and test treatments, but there is no perfect model that fully captures human depression.
178
What is anxiety?
Anxiety is a state of apprehension and fear that can be overwhelming, including irrational fears, a sense of terror, body sensations (dizziness, difficulty breathing, trembling), and a feeling of loss of control.
179
How can anxiety be lethal?
Men with panic disorder are more likely to die from cardiovascular disease or suicide (De La Vega et al., 2018).
180
What are the major types of anxiety disorders according to the DSM-5-TR?
Phobic disorders: Intense, irrational fears centered on a specific object, activity, or situation.
Panic disorder: Recurrent transient attacks of intense fearfulness.
Generalized anxiety disorder (GAD): Persistent, excessive anxiety and worry for months.
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What is the genetic and neurobiological basis of anxiety disorders?
Strong genetic contribution (Shih et al., 2004; Oler et al., 2010).
Distinctive underlying neurobiological predispositions (Shackman et al., 2013).
Temporal lobe abnormalities, especially in the left hemisphere, in some with recurrent panic attacks (Vythilingam et al., 2000; Van Tol et al., 2010).
The amygdala plays a special role in mediating fear (Rauch et al., 2003).
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What are common drug treatments for anxiety?
Historically: Alcohol, cannabis, and opiates.
1950s: Meprobamate (Miltown), later replaced by benzodiazepines (e.g., Valium, Xanax, Ativan).
Benzodiazepines boost GABA-mediated inhibition, reducing neuron excitability.
The brain produces anxiety-relieving substances like allopregnanolone.
Other anxiolytics: Buspirone (BuSpar, a serotonin 5-HT1A agonist) and SSRIs/SNRIs (e.g., Lexapro, Prozac, Effexor).
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What is PTSD?
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) involves persistent, intrusive traumatic memories and heightened fear responses following exposure to intense, distressing events.
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What are common symptoms of PTSD?
Memory disturbances (amnesia, flashbacks, short-term memory deficits).
Smaller right hippocampal volume in those with PTSD (Logue et al., 2018).
Increased sensitivity to cortisol, potentially leading to repeated fear responses (Wichmann et al., 2017).
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What are effective PTSD treatments?
Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), involving gradual exposure to trauma-related stimuli (Foa & McLean, 2016).
Drugs that block stress hormone effects.
Emerging therapies: MDMA under controlled conditions (Mitchell et al., 2021).
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What is obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)?
OCD is characterized by persistent, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors (compulsions) that individuals feel powerless to stop.
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How common is OCD?
Between 1-2% of adults worldwide have chronic OCD, with symptoms often appearing in childhood or between ages 25–44.
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What are the neurobiological factors of OCD?
Changes in the prefrontal cortex, cingulate cortex, basal ganglia, and insula (van den Heuvel et al., 2022).
Dysfunction in serotonergic neurotransmission.
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What treatments are available for OCD?
Cognitive behavioral therapy (Öst et al., 2016; Abramowitz et al., 2018).
SSRIs such as Prozac, Luvox, and Anafranil.
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) and, in extreme cases, cingulotomy (Karas et al., 2019; Shah et al., 2008).
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What genetic and environmental factors contribute to OCD?
Heritable genetic component (Pauls et al., 2014).
Some cases linked to streptococcal infections triggering autoimmune responses against brain proteins (Orlovska et al., 2017).
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How are psychiatric disorders interrelated?
Many disorders cluster together genetically.
Schizophrenia and bipolar disorder share a 50% genetic overlap (Brainstorm Consortium et al., 2018).
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What is attention (or selective attention)?
Attention is the process by which we select or focus on specific stimuli (external or internal) for enhanced processing and analysis.
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What distinguishes attention from vigilance?
Attention is selective, focusing on specific stimuli, while vigilance refers to the global level of alertness of an individual.
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What is overt attention?
Overt attention occurs when both our eyes and attention are directed at the same target, such as when we focus on reading a sentence.
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What is covert attention?
Covert attention involves focusing attention on a target without shifting our eyes, such as when we focus on something in our peripheral vision without looking at it directly.
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What is the cocktail party effect?
The cocktail party effect is the ability to focus on a single voice in a noisy environment while filtering out background sounds, demonstrating how attention can tune into a specific target.
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What is inattentional blindness?
Inattentional blindness is the failure to perceive stimuli that are not being attended to, such as not noticing a gorilla in a video while focusing on other events.
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What is the difference between early- and late-selection models of attention?
Early-selection models filter out unattended stimuli at the sensory input level, while late-selection models suggest that unattended stimuli may undergo unconscious processing before attention is captured.
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How does attention act as a filter?
Attention narrows focus, directing cognitive resources toward important stimuli and excluding irrelevant ones to avoid overwhelming the brain.
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What is voluntary (endogenous) attention?
Voluntary attention is the conscious, top-down directing of attention toward specific aspects of the environment based on interests and goals.
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What is reflexive (exogenous) attention?
Reflexive attention is a bottom-up process where attention is automatically captured by sudden or significant changes in the environment, such as a loud sound or movement.
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What is the inhibition of return in attention?
Inhibition of return occurs when, after a valid cue, attention is reluctant to return to that location after a certain amount of time (around 200 ms), likely to prevent focus on irrelevant stimuli.
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What is the difference between feature and conjunction search in visual search tasks?
In a feature search, the target item "pops out" immediately based on a single attribute (e.g., color), while a conjunction search requires the integration of multiple attributes and becomes more difficult as the number of distractors increases.
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What is the binding problem in attention?
The binding problem refers to how different stimulus features (e.g., color, shape) processed by different brain regions are combined to form a single object.
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How do reflexive and voluntary attention work together?
Reflexive and voluntary attention complement each other, as reflexive attention grabs our focus for sudden events, while voluntary attention directs focus based on goals and interests.
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What does the symbolic cuing task measure?
The symbolic cuing task measures reaction time and how voluntary shifts of attention improve processing speed and accuracy when directed toward validly cued locations.
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What is the primary challenge in directly recording electrical activity from the neurons in people's brains?
The challenge is that we can't insert recording electrodes directly into the brains of healthy participants, so we must find noninvasive ways to assess brain activity.
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What is the purpose of averaging EEG recordings over repeated trials?
Averaging EEG recordings helps eliminate random variation, allowing researchers to isolate the electrical activity associated with specific task performance (Event-Related Potential, ERP).
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What does an Event-Related Potential (ERP) measure?
ERP measures regional changes in brain activity that occur in response to a specific stimulus or task, providing excellent temporal resolution compared to other brain-imaging techniques like fMRI.
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What are the two large waves observed in the ERP following an auditory stimulus between 100 and 150 ms?
The two waves are an initial positive-going wave called P1, followed by a larger negative-going wave called N1.
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What does the N1 wave in ERP indicate in terms of auditory attention?
The N1 wave is larger for a stimulus that is attended to compared to the same stimulus when it is not attended to, indicating the impact of selective auditory attention on neural processing.
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What is the significance of the P3 (auditory P300) wave in ERP?
The P3 wave is thought to reflect higher-order processing of a stimulus, such as its meaning, unexpected language, or speaker identity, and may be linked to late-selection attention effects.
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How does voluntary visual attention affect the ERP components, specifically P1 and N1?
In valid trials, where attention is directed to the correct location, ERP components like P1 and N1 are enhanced, reflecting the increased neural processing of the attended stimulus.
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What happens to the ERP when attention is directed elsewhere in invalid visual trials?
There is no enhancement of the P1 wave in invalid trials, even though the visual stimulus is identical to valid trials.
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What does the N2pc component of ERP reflect in visual search tasks?
The N2pc component is triggered at occipitotemporal sites contralateral to the visual target during visual search tasks, indicating neural processing related to finding a target and ignoring distractors.
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How does experience with action video games affect neural mechanisms of attention?
Extensive experience with action video games enhances longer-latency ERP components, reflecting neural changes associated with visual attention.
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How does attention affect brain regions in fMRI studies?
Attention boosts the activity of brain regions that process specific aspects of a target stimulus, such as the fusiform face area for faces or the superior colliculus for spatial processing.
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How does attention modulate the activity of individual neurons in the visual cortex?
When attention is directed to a specific stimulus within a neuron’s receptive field, the neuron fires more action potentials; shifting attention to another part of the receptive field reduces neuronal firing.
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What role does attention play in reshaping the receptive fields of neurons?
Attention can modify the receptive fields of neurons, altering how they respond to stimuli within those fields.
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What are the two main forms of attention described?
Reflexive (bottom-up) attention and controlled (top-down) attention.
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How do subcortical structures affect attention?
Subcortical structures, such as the superior colliculus and pulvinar nucleus, guide shifts of attention, affecting neural processing and augmenting electrophysiological activity.
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What role does the superior colliculus play in attention?
The superior colliculus helps direct our gaze to attended objects and ensures we don’t return to them too soon after moving our gaze elsewhere.
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What happens when the superior colliculus is inactivated?
Monkeys lose the ability to use selective attention cues, like arrows and flashes, until the inactivation ends.
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What is the function of the pulvinar nucleus in attention?
The pulvinar helps orient and shift attention, filters out distractions, and coordinates cortical activity according to attentional demands.
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How do lesions in the pulvinar nucleus affect attention?
Lesions may cause difficulty in orienting covert attention toward visual targets and in filtering out distractions.
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Which brain region is associated with voluntary (top-down) control of attention?
The lateral intraparietal area (LIP) in monkeys, and the intraparietal sulcus (IPS) in humans.
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How does the IPS contribute to attention?
The IPS is involved in shifting voluntary attention and is activated during attention tasks requiring sustained focus.
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What role does the frontal eye field (FEF) play in attention?
The FEF helps direct gaze according to cognitive goals and prevents distraction by peripheral stimuli.
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What is the right temporoparietal junction (TPJ) responsible for?
The TPJ is involved in reflexive (bottom-up) attention shifts, especially in response to novel or unexpected stimuli.
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How does the TPJ interact with working memory?
The TPJ has strong connections with the ventral frontal cortex, which is involved in working memory and tracks sensory inputs over short time frames.
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What is hemispatial neglect?
A disorder caused by damage to the right hemisphere, where a person disregards the left side of the world, even though their vision is intact.
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What are the symptoms of Bálint’s syndrome?
Difficulty steering visual gaze (oculomotor apraxia), inability to reach for objects using visual guidance (optic ataxia), and a profound restriction of attention (simultagnosia), limiting conscious observation to one object at a time.
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How is simultagnosia related to attention?
Simultagnosia illustrates the coordination of attention and awareness, where a person can only consciously experience one object at a time.
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What happens when the right hemisphere is damaged?
Damage often leads to hemispatial neglect, where the left side of the world is ignored, reflecting a disorder of attention rather than vision.
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What is the relationship between attention and consciousness?
Attention is the foundation of consciousness. We are always attending to something, whether it's internal or external, whenever we are conscious.
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How did William James describe the relationship between attention and consciousness?
William James wrote, "My experience is what I agree to attend to. Only those items which I notice shape my mind—without selective interest, experience is an utter chaos."
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What is a reasonable definition of consciousness?
Consciousness is the state of being aware that we are conscious, perceiving what’s going on in our minds and surroundings, including awareness of time, past events, and future imaginings.
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Which brain regions are active when we are conscious?
The default mode network, including parts of the frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, is activated when we are introspective and reflective, and deactivated during goal-directed behavior.
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What role does the claustrum play in consciousness?
The claustrum is involved in coordinating cognitive elements of consciousness and has reciprocal connections with almost every area of the cortex. Stimulation of the claustrum can lead to changes in consciousness.
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How do researchers study consciousness in people with reduced consciousness?
They map brain activity and identify deactivated areas, showing that consciousness relies on a specific frontoparietal network, which includes the cortical attention network.
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What is the "easy problem" of consciousness?
The "easy problem" refers to understanding how neural activity creates specific conscious experiences, such as recognizing visual stimuli or recalling a memory.
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What is the "hard problem" of consciousness?
The "hard problem" is understanding how brain processes produce subjective experiences, or qualia, like the personal experience of seeing the color "red," which cannot be communicated to others.
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How do brain regions contribute to the feeling of free will?
Areas like the motor regions, parietal cortex, and prefrontal cortex are activated when we intend to act. However, research shows brain activity indicating decision-making can occur before conscious awareness.
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What is executive function and which brain regions are involved?
Executive function refers to cognitive processes that organize lower-level functions in line with thoughts and feelings. It involves regions of the frontal lobes, particularly the prefrontal cortex.
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What functions are associated with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex?
The dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is crucial for working memory, task switching, and top-down conscious control. Lesions in this area can cause difficulty switching tasks and perseveration.
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What role does the orbitofrontal cortex play in decision-making?
The orbitofrontal cortex, particularly the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, is involved in making decisions based on rewards and evaluating the value of different choices.
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How do neuroeconomic studies relate to decision-making?
Neuroeconomics studies brain mechanisms involved in economic decision-making, showing how environmental factors and evaluation of rewards impact our decisions, especially in loss aversion and risk-taking.
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What is neuroeconomics?
Neuroeconomics is the study of brain mechanisms involved in economic decision-making, including how people evaluate rewards and make choices based on perceived value.
