Final Test Bank Flashcards
1
Q
According to prevailing scientific accounts, hominids or “human-like” creatures first appeared on the Earth around ________________ years ago.
A
3-4 million
2
Q
According to prevailing scientific accounts, hominids or “human-like” creatures first appeared in:
A
Africa
3
Q
Until about 40,000 years ago, Homo sapiens sapiens, or “wise human beings,” shared the planet with which human-like species?
A
Neanderthals
4
Q
The Paleolithic Age (2,500,000-10,000 BCE) was characterized by
A
Hunting and Gathering
5
Q
The Neolithic Revolution (10,000-4,000 BCE) saw
A
The domestication of animals and the start of agriculture
6
Q
Around 4,000 to 3,000 BCE, what happened?
A
First Civilizations
7
Q
Writing, monumental architecture, urban living, formed religious outlooks, governing institutions and laws are all characteristic of which stage in human development?
A
Civilization
8
Q
Çatal Hüyük, one of the world’s oldest permanent human settlements, with walls that enclosed 32 acres, and with a population of around 6,000, is located in the modern nation of:
A
Turkey
9
Q
This metal was used for making tools starting after 4000 BCE. It proved harder and more durable than its predecessor, copper. Historians are in the habit of naming an entire age, approximately 3000-1200 BCE, after its use.
A
Bronze
10
Q
The Greeks knew this part of the world as “the land between the rivers.” It was the home to some of the oldest civilizations on the planet. Today, much of it is located in the modern-day nation of:
A
Iraq
11
Q
Around 2340 BCE, the Sumerian speaking city-states located in the southern reaches of the Tigris-Euphrates River valley were overrun by the Semitic-speaking peoples of this city-state:
A
Akkad
12
Q
According to a textbook, this Babylonian monarch “employed a well-disciplined army of foot soldiers who carried axes, spears and copper or bronze daggers. He learned how to divide his opponents and subdue them one by one.” Around 1770 BC, he left an enduring law code that was based on the principle that punishment should fit the crime.
A
Hammurabi
13
Q
A system of writing that employed the use of a reed stylus to make wedge-shaped impressions on clay tables was known as:
A
Cuneiform
14
Q
Which of the following is true and made ancient Egyptian civilization distinct from its near contemporary counterparts in Mesopotamia?
A
The Egyptians for most of their history knew political unity.
15
Q
The pyramids at Giza were built during which period in Egyptian history?
A
Old Kingdom
16
Q
Around 1650 BCE, this group of invaders brought the Middle Kingdom period in Egyptian history to an end.
A
Hyksos
17
Q
Which of the following does not belong to the Indo-European language family?
A
Hebrew
18
Q
These people might best be known historically for their versatile alphabet. They were also sea traders who established commercial contacts as far north as Britain and as far south as the west coast of Africa. The Romans and Greeks knew them as the “purple people” because of their monopoly on a precious dye used to make royal clothing.
A
Phoenicians
19
Q
In 587/586 BCE, this city fell to Nebuchadnezzar and its inhabitants were subject to the Babylonian captivity.
A
Jerusalem
20
Q
Their capital was Nineveh. They sacked Babylon. They put an end to the Kingdom of Israel. They also conquered Egypt. Their kings seemed to take pride in acts that we would now consider war atrocities. Who were these people?
A
Assyrians
21
Q
Ahura-Mazda, Ahriman, the Zend Avesta, and “judgment day” are all features of which religion?
A
Zoroastrianism
22
Q
In the context of Hebrew monotheism, transcendent theology meant that
A
Yahweh stood entirely outside of nature
23
Q
Why is 586 BCE significant?
A
a) Judaism as a religion survived even though its temple and national home had been destroyed
b) From this point forward, Jewish teachings would be presented increasingly in ethical terms
c) Both “a” and “b”
24
Q
In the Hebrew Bible, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Songs are best described as
A
Wisdom Literature
25
“Go up to Jerusalem in Judah, build the house of the Lord the God of Israel, the God who is in Jerusalem.” According to the Hebrew Bible, who uttered this?
Cyrus the Great
26
All of the following civilizations emerged BEFORE the archaic/classical period Greeks except
Romans
27
The earliest civilization in the Aegean Sea was discovered by English archaeologist Arthur Evans on this island at the turn of the twentieth century. Recent DNA evidence, contrary to historical consensus through much of the twentieth century, establishes that they were related to the peoples of the Greek mainland. The civilization was located on the island of
Crete
28
Inspired by the Homeric epics, German archaeologist Heinrich Schliemann began to excavate a fortified site on the Greek mainland starting around 1870. The civilization that had existed at this site flourished from around 1400 to 1200 BC. The civilization was defined by powerful monarchies that prided themselves on heroic deeds in battle. Having deciphered its script, historians concluded that this was an early Greek civilization.
Mycenaean
29
Although they described a much earlier period in Greek history, the Homeric epics were most likely composed during this period:
Late Dark Age
30
Which of the following does NOT describe the Archaic Period in Greece?
Transition away from hoplite infantry in favor of individualized combat
31
Which of the following concerning ancient Greek history is not true?
Slavery was unknown in ancient Greece
32
Which of the following is probably NOT a fair assessment of tyranny during Archaic or Classical Period Greece?
Tyrants were always abusive rulers
33
All of the following are true about Solon EXCEPT
Solon eliminated the aristocracy as a force in Athenian politics
34
Socrates
a) was accused of atheism and corrupting the young.
b) was implicated in the actions of a discredited government.
c) had many admirers, including Plato.
d) ALL OF THE ABOVE
35
One of the primary characteristics of ancient Greek philosophy was its
Emphasis on reason as the means of discovering truth
36
He lived from 429-347 BC. He established a school in Athens called the Academy. In his dialogue entitled, The Republic, he demonstrated a strong distrust of democracy. His ideal state divided its population into three groups, at the top of which served the philosopher-kings.
Plato
37
He lived from 384-322 BCE. He rejected the theory of ideal forms, meaning that he did not believe there was a reality beyond this world of material things. He wrote extensively on ethics, logic, and politics, among other subjects. In his Politics, he examined the constitutions of 158 states and divided them up into three basic forms of government. He held constitutional government (in which all people, including the rulers, are subject to the law), to be the best.
Aristotle
38
The primary cause of the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BCE) was
the growing domination of Athens over the other city-states
39
Which of the following was not true concerning Athenian women during the Classical Period of Greek history?
They were prohibited from working in the household
40
Which of the following is not generally true of male homosexuality in Athens during the Classical Period of Greek history?
Since Athenian society generally saw male homosexuality as a threat, homosexual relationships were nearly always conducted in secret.
41
Which of the following was not generally true of Spartan society during the Classical Period of Greek history?
Soldiers were expected to tend to the fields and perform manual labor.
42
He defeated the Athenians at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BCE. He required all Greeks to take an oath of loyalty and join an alliance under his leadership. (He otherwise left them free to run their own affairs.) He insisted that Greeks end their rivalries in preparation for an invasion of Persia.
Philip II
43
The largest city in the Mediterranean world in the first century BCE. It housed one of the world’s largest libraries, a lighthouse that was considered one of the wonders of the ancient world, and was the home of poets, writers, philosophers and scientists.
Alexandria
44
Which one of the following statements is both true and explains an important difference between the philosophies of Stoicism and Epicureanism?
Stoicism encouraged engagement with the world, including public service.
45
Which of the following cultures had the most direct early influence on Rome? They were responsible for much of Rome’s early architecture and urban planning. They played a role in governing Rome until the establishment of the Roman republic in 509 BCE.
Etruscans
46
Which if the following did NOT contribute to early Roman military successes?
Especially by the standards of antiquity, the Romans treated their conquered subjects harshly and brutally, so as to discourage any thought of rebellion.
47
The Punic Wars were fought between Rome and
Carthage
48
Which of the following was NOT true of the Roman constitution in the Republican period?
The Centuriate Assembly ensured that all Roman citizens were represented equally, without regard to class or wealth.
49
What is typically NOT true of Roman religious practices during the Republic?
Religious belief was ultimately a private affair.
50
Which of the following is NOT true concerning Roman territorial expansion between 264 and 133 BCE?
a) It generated tremendous wealth and unsettled Rome’s socio-economic balance.
b) It made a significant portion of the Roman population dependent on state grain subsidies.
c) It required Rome to depend more on the full-time professional soldier, rather than the citizen soldier of the earlier period.
d) ALL OF THESE ARE TRUE
51
Which of the following is NOT true concerning the Gracchi?
They succeeded in defusing Rome’s social and political crisis
52
In the context of ancient Roman history, what were latifundia?
Vast landed estates typically employing slave labor
53
He is usually seen as Rome’s first true emperor. He ruled from 31 BCE to 14 CE.
Augustus
54
The Roman Empire declined most precipitously during:
the Crisis of the Third Century
55
Which late 3rd Century Roman is credited with rescuing the empire from the chaos of the previous century?
Diocletian
56
When historians begin the period of the Dominate with the rule of Diocletian, it is because Diocletian
a) called himself “Lord” and physically removed himself from the court
b) defined formal rules for imperial succession
c) imposed rules on the economy, currency and taxation system
d) ALL OF THE ABOVE
57
A chief difference between the Augustun system (“the Principate”) and the later Dominate was
Augustus preserved the appearance of Rome's republican institutions
58
All of the following are typical of Roman governing practice during the Pax Romana except:
the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE
59
Which most accurately describes this map?
Tetrarchy
60
At the end of Emperor Diocletian’s rule:
Diocletian retired to Dalmatia
61
Constantinople was founded as an imperial capital in 324 CE, and remained as such for about
1,100 years
62
In the last century or so of the Roman Empire in the West, emperors resided at all of the following cities EXCEPT
Rome
63
“… more populous, more prosperous, and more central to imperial policy…” describes which part of the Roman Empire in the fourth century CE?
the Greek-speaking east
64
Which of the following legacies of the Roman Empire proved to be the least enduring historically speaking?
The territorial unification of much of Europe
65
Which of the following statements about the life and career of Jesus Christ proved to be the most controversial to historians in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries?
Jesus was a historical figure
66
The Dead Sea Scrolls described a quasi-monastic, ascetic and strictly sectarian group of Jews known as
Essenes
67
Apostle Paul caused the most controversy among the early Jewish followers of Jesus because
Paul did not believe that adherence to Jewish dietary and other ritual laws was necessary to be a Christian
68
All of the following Roman emperors supported Christianity EXCEPT
Julian
69
In the context of early Christianity, the Arians
argued that Jesus was not fully God
70
Which of the following about Germans in (or near) the Roman Empire is generally not true?
Germans refused to assimilate to Roman culture
71
When Germanic tribes conquered the Roman Empire in the West
they often assumed Roman administrative and cultural patterns
72
Which of the following is not typically seen by historians as a reason to consider the Byzantine Empire historically significant?
Byzantium preserved the democratic heritage of the ancient Greek world at a time when absolute monarchies ruled the West.
73
All of the following are true about the Byzantine Empire EXCEPT
it maintained cordial relations with Latin Christianity
74
Byzantine Emperor Justinian’s most impressive and long-lasting accomplishment was his:
codification of Roman law
75
The former capital of the Byzantine Empire, this city is now located in Turkey.
Istanbul
76
Which of the following statements concerning Islam is not true?
Like Catholic and Orthodox Christianity, Islam has a worldwide hierarchy of celibate clerics, bishops and other officials.
77
Which of the following was not under the control of the Islamic caliphate in 750 AD?
Greece
78
The schism between Sunni and Shiite Islam can be traced historically to
a succession conflict
79
Capital in Damascus. Influence as far west as Spain. A library in Cordoba of more than 4,000 volumes. Sometimes seen as a successor to the Byzantines.
Umayyads
80
In Medieval Europe, Averroës was a famous
commentator on Aristotle
81
Among the Islamic contributions to Western Europe, which might be the most ironic, as far as Islamic law is concerned?
distilled alcohol
82
Based in Baghdad. An imitation of Persian absolutism. Arabian Nights. A gradual impoverishment of their economic base in the Tigris-Euphrates. These are the
Abbasids
83
Which of the following is not true of Western Europe during the Early Middle Ages (500-1000 CE)?
Towns and cities swelled with landless laborers.
84
With the support of Pope Gregory I, this monastic order assumed the responsibility of transcribing and maintaining classical texts, both pagan and Christian.
Benedictines
85
He temporarily united much of Western Europe around 800 CE. He was a patron of higher learning and extended the frontiers of Christendom east. Less than three years after his death, his kingdom had fractured into three major sections.
Charlemagne
86
A Sunni Muslim, Turkic-speaking power. It conquered the interior of Asia Minor and captured Jerusalem in the 11th Century.
Seljuks
87
Which century?
Twelfth
88
A system of hierarchies developed between monarchs and their various subordinate lords and vassals that more clearly spelled out the duties and responsibilities of each. Although this term has recently fallen out of favor with many historians, it was long known as_**\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_**_.
Feudalism
89
In the ninth and tenth centuries, Europe saw invasions from which of the following?
a) Vikings
b) Magyars
c) Muslims
d) ALL OF THESE
90
Chivalry appealed to knights and nobles because it gave them a way of distinguishing themselves from
Merchants, lawyers, and artisans
91
In medieval Western Europe, what was a serf?
a peasant usually bound to the land and the landlord’s jurisdiction
92
In the Middle Ages (and later), European peasants were most likely to derive the major source of their daily caloric intake from
Bread and beer
93
In France, who was exempt from direct taxation in the High Middle Ages?
nobles
94
Medieval guilds in Europe were known for all of the following EXCEPT
Exhibiting a tolerant attitude towards outsiders, particularly Jews
95
Until the twelfth century, this city was the most populated in Christian Europe.
Constantinople
96
From Normandy, he launched an invasion of England in 1066. He combined existing Anglo-Saxon and Norman institutions to create a strong, centralized monarchy.
William the Conqueror
97
In 1295, English King Edward I convened a council that consisted of two knights from each county and two residents from each town. Its purpose was to give consent to taxes. We now know this institution as:
Parliament
98
In 987 CE, this dynasty was established in France:
Capetian
99
Which of the following does NOT accurately describe the Holy Roman Empire?
It became the most centralized monarchy in Europe, paving the way for a powerful national state
100
At the height of its influence during the Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Empire had substantial holdings in
1. The German lands
2. Northern Italy
3. Bohemia
4. ALL OF THESE
101
In the ninth century AD, Saints Cyril and Methodius, representatives of \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_, introduced Christianity and the Cyrillic Alphabet to the \_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_\_.
Byzantium – South Slavs
102
In the late eighth century AD, warrior-traders from this part of the world began to use the extensive rivers of Eastern Europe to establish a presence in the modern-day nations of Russia and Ukraine. They established a dynasty in the city of Kiev and adopted Christianity. They eventually assimilated into the surrounding Slavic populations.
Scandinavia
103
In 1075, Pope Gregory VII decided to put an end to this practice. It provoked a ferocious controversy with secular leaders that did not end until a century later.
lay investiture
104
As a result of the Investiture Controversy, “Going to Canossa” usually means
begging for forgiveness
105
In the thirteenth century CE, two new Christian religious orders emerged. They both rejected the monastic ethos (that is, living apart in enclosed communities), and argued that their followers must work and live among the needy.
Franciscans and Dominicans
106
Which of the following is NOT part of the story of the intellectual revival during the High Middle Ages in Europe?
An open willingness to scrutinize fundamental Christian beliefs
107
A university education in the European High Middle Ages included
1. Grammar and rhetoric
2. Logic and arithmetic
3. Music and astronomy
4. ANY AND ALL OF THESE
108
This ancient Greek philosopher who featured most prominently in the development of Scholasticism in the European High Middle Ages was
Aristotle
109
A leading theologian at the University of Paris in the 1200s, and a Dominican, he believed that God could be approached through the terms of the natural world. He authored the *Summa Contra Gentiles* and *Summa Theologica*. The Catholic Church reveres him as an Angelic Doctor.
St. Thomas Aquinas
110
This architectural style, prominent during the High Middle Ages in Europe, featured the pointed arch, ribbed vaulting and the flying buttress. It featured lofty spires, rose windows, sculpted facades, and multiple columns. It emphasized the vertical.
Gothic
111
All of the following can be seen as a _long-lasting_ legacy of the European Crusades EXCEPT
The restoration of Jerusalem to Christendom
112
The year 1054 CE is significant because
It marked the permanent schism between the Western and Eastern Christian Churches.
113
What happened in 1347-48 CE?
A major outbreak of the plague erupted and spread throughout Europe.
114
European society in the wake of the Black Death was
1. smaller
2. wealthier
3. healthier
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
115
Which of the following rendered European society vulnerable to the Black Death?
1. over cultivation
2. over population
3. climate change
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
116
The Plague usually claimed its victims in about
a week
117
Due to the combined effects of plague, famine and war, the total population of Western Europe in 1300 to 1450
declined by at least one-half
118
Which of the following were new features of European business practices in the fifteenth century?
1. new forms of partnerships
2. insurance contracts for shipping
3. double-entry bookkeeping and branch banking techniques
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
119
A Jacquerie is a generic term referring to the revolt of
Peasants
120
In the fifteenth century, Europe’s traditional aristocrats saw their economic fortunes decline because they
depended on land rents for income
121
In 1381, English peasants revolted because
they were angry over new taxes
122
The Hundred Years’ War of 1337-1453 involved which two kingdoms?
England and France
123
Which of the following probably did NOT contribute to popular heresy in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries?
outrage over the Crusades
124
During the “Great Schism” of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, one Pope ruled from Rome, and the other from
Avignon
125
Which of the following statements concerning European Jews in the immediate after of the Crusades is _incorrect_?
In 1119, Pope Callixtus II issued a bull that legalized acts of violence against Jews.
126
In the 1200s, Gothic cathedrals in Paris, Amiens, Chartres, and Rheims were built in reverence for
The Virgin Mary
127
The Catholic term “transubstantiation” refers to which sacrament?
Eucharist
128
From about 1350 to 1550, many people living in Italy believed they were witnessing a renaissance or “rebirth” of
Classical Greek and Roman ideals
129
Renaissance scholars in Italy and elsewhere took an interest in subjects such as grammar, rhetoric, poetry, ethics, and history. These subjects are the foundation of
The liberal arts or humanities
130
The son of an exiled Florentine official living in Avignon, he is sometimes hailed as the father of Italian Renaissance humanism. He sought after forgotten Latin manuscripts. He used the works of Cicero as a model for prose and the works of Virgil as a model for poetry. He coined the term “Dark Ages,” to describe the long period between the decline of Rome and his own era.
Petrarch
131
He lived from 1452-1519. He studied the human body in detail and is seen as initiating the Renaissance’s preoccupation with nature. He painted *The Last Supper*.
Leonardo
132
He lived from 1483-1520. He was acclaimed for his numerous renditions of the Virgin Mary and for his well-known frescoes in the Vatican Palace. He might best be known for *The School of Athens*.
Raphael
133
The Medici family played a major role in sponsoring the arts primarily in which Renaissance city?
Florence
134
Which individual during the Italian Renaissance is credited with inventing linear perspective? (Hint: he also built a dome.)
Brunelleschi
135
A painter, sculptor and architect, as evidenced by his statue, *David*, he associated anatomic perfection with divine beauty. He is also well known for his paintings on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel.
Michelangelo
136
Concerning Italian politics in the fifteenth century, which of the following is NOT true?
the Italian nationalist movement gained momentum
137
A German Dominican, he taught that the human soul was the dwelling place of God. By renouncing one’s selfhood, one might find divinity.
Master Eckhart
138
A fourteenth century English religious reformer, he concluded that most Catholic Church officials were damned:
John Wycliffe
139
In 1415, Jan Hus was promised safe passage to the Council of Constance. He then
was burned
140
Which of the following does NOT accurately describe the 100 Years’ War?
Joan of Arc played no role in the actual fighting
141
Between 1307 and 1485, no fewer than five English kings were deposed and murdered by their subjects. From a historians’ perspective, this might be reasonably explained by all of the following EXCEPT
the English monarchy was unusually centralized
142
Ultimately, the 100 Years War was beneficial to England because
English national identity was strengthened
143
In 1492
1. Columbus set sail for America
2. Spain annexed the last Muslim kingdom on the Iberian Peninsula
3. Ferdinand and Isabella expelled Spain’s Jews
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
144
The Khanate of the Golden Horde was based in
The lower Volga River
145
What is the least convincing characterization of the Duchy of Moscow?
Westernizing
146
Around the sixteenth century, the statement, “Two Romes have fallen, the third is still standing, and a fourth there shall not be,” was most likely authored in
Moscow
147
Which of the following concerning Ivan III is NOT true?
we now know him as Ivan the Terrible
148
William of Ockham argued that
1. only scriptural revelation can confirm the existence of God
2. God is free to do anything
3. only individual things, not collectives, can be known
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
149
Boccaccio, Chaucer, and Christine de Pisan all
1. wrote about everyday concerns that appealed to popular audiences
2. wrote in their vernacular language
3. included sophisticated women in their narratives
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
150
The introduction of firearms and cannons meant that
1. the Turks could penetrate Constantinople
2. kings could subdue aristocrats
3. foot soldiers gained an advantage over cavalry
4. ALL OF THE ABOVE
151
What most directly stimulated the invention of moveable type?
Paper
152
Lay literacy, in conjunction with the mass printing market, is historically important because it stimulated
1. Protestantism
2. national languages and literatures
3. revolutionary ideologies
4. ALL OF THESE
153
Which of the following did _not_ play a significant contributing factor in the emergence of stronger national states starting around 1400?
The emergence of a hereditary “warrior” aristocracy
154
In the fictitious land depicted in his 1516 short book entitled “no place,” priests are allowed to marry, and society tolerates numerous religious beliefs, of which monotheism is only one. Ironically, his refusal to break with the Catholic Church resulted in his execution in 1534. He was canonized as a saint in the early twentieth century.
Thomas More
155
How did Portuguese explorers find a direct route to India starting in the 1400s?
They established a series of trading posts along the African coast before rounding the Cape of Good Hope.
156
The establishment of a Portuguese trading link to India was important for all the following reasons EXCEPT
Portugal’s trade missions were soon followed by the establishment of a vast Portuguese colonial empire in India.
157
Which of the following “discoveries” in the Americas profoundly changed the European diet?
The potato
158
The most “advanced” of the Native American societies in this region developed a written language, sophisticated systems of mathematics, and the world’s most accurate calendar. When the Spanish arrived here starting around 1500, they found monumental architecture and urban centers that rivaled anything found in Europe at that time.
Central America and Mexico
159
A Dominican and a former Encomendero, he convinced Emperor Charles V that the Native Americans under his authority should be treated as human beings, under the hope that they could be Christianized.
Bartolome de Las Casas
160
Which of the following statements concerning the slave trade starting in the 1400s is _true_?
African slavery was accelerated by the near extermination of the native populations of the New World.
161
Which of the following was _not_ a consequence of Spain’s New World conquests?
Peoples of exclusively Spanish descent became the numerically predominant inhabitants of the Western Hemisphere.
162
Martin Luther’s argument that salvation can be attained through “faith alone” leaned most heavily on which early Catholic Church authority?
St. Augustine
163
Which of the following is _true_ and explains a key _difference_ between Lutheranism and Calvinism?
The Calvinists were more assertive in breaking with the traditions or rituals of the Catholic Church not directly sanctioned by Christian Scripture
164
Which of the following does not explain convincingly why Lutheranism survived when other previous “heresies” had failed?
As a systematic theologian, Luther was successful early on in building an internal church hierarchy that rivaled Rome’s.
165
In its early history, Calvinism took hold in
Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Scotland
166
Which of the following _accurately_ characterizes the position of the Catholic Church in the aftermath of the Council of Trent?
The Catholic Church continued to hold that human will was free. It likewise held that good works, in addition to faith, were necessary for salvation.
167
The Mennonites, Hutterites, and Amish claim lineage from which Reformation movement:
Anabaptist
168
An attempt to synthesize the artistic traditions of the Renaissance with the revival of religious feeling, especially in parts of Europe where Catholicism prevailed. In both secular and church architecture, this style emphasized power and was meant to inspire awe. Two of its leading figures were Peter Paul Rubens and Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
Baroque
169
They were given Papal approval during the Council of Trent. Conceptualized as soldiers of the Catholic Church, they were required to undergo intense spiritual training designed to inculcate discipline and loyalty. Their founder wrote "...I will believe that the white that I see is black if the hierarchical Church so defines it."
Jesuits
170
What did Henry VIII do?
He established an independent Church of England that otherwise remained similar to Roman Catholic practice in worship and structure.
