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Biol 211 Vertebrate Zoology > Final test > Flashcards

Final test Flashcards

1
Q

zygapophyses

A

interlock and prevent bending and twisting, and facilitates
transfer of weight to limbs

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2
Q

zygapophyses are found on

A

Vertebrae

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3
Q

Axial muscles have ___ main roles

A

2.
1. Postural support of the axial skeleton
2. Ventilation

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4
Q

axial muscles are Also important for locomotion by…

A
  • Lateral bending in salamanders, lepidosaurs,
    crocodylians
  • Dorsoventral flexion in mammals
  • Powering of the tail in aquatic mammals
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5
Q

Appendicular Skeleton Includes

A

limbs & limb girdles (pectoral and pelvic)

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6
Q

Limb girdles of _____ are not attached to vertebral column.
Not suitable for life on land

A

fish

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7
Q

Tetrapod limbs are derived from

A

the fin of fishes

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8
Q

Tetrapods have _____ limbs including…

A

jointed limbs with wrist/ankle joints, hands, feet
and digits

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9
Q

Pelvic girdle made up of three paired bones

A
  1. Ilium
  2. Ischium
  3. Pubis
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10
Q

how is the pelvic girdle attached to the vertebral column

A

via the ilia

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11
Q

how is the pectoral girdle articulated with the vertebral column

A

indirectly, this provides greater ROM

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12
Q

Are larger animals simply an enlargement of smaller
animals? why or why not?

A

No, organism shapes change with size because:
– When a linear feature doubles in length:
* Surface area increases fourfold
* Volume increases eightfold

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13
Q

Allometry:

A

study of scaling.

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14
Q

The ancestral form of quadrupedal locomotion was

A

lateral axial movements with synchronized movement of diagonal pairs of legs

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15
Q

Amniotes use a “walk” gait

A

where legs move independently in succession

Can be sped up to the amble and trot

Mammals have fast gaits bound & gallop

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16
Q

tounge of terrestrial vertebrates is

A

muscular and use to manipulate food and aid in swallowing

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17
Q

Salivary glands provide

A

lubrication to help with swallowing and have enzymes to aid digestion

some are venomous

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18
Q

Breathing air may be ______ costly than
respiration in water

A

less

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19
Q

Amniotes use ________ aspiration
pump

A

negative-pressure

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20
Q

negative-pressure aspiration pump mechanism

A

Muscular expansion of the rib cage creates negative pressure that draws air inwards

Exhalation via elastic return of the rib cage to resting position

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21
Q

Amphibians have _____ lungs with ____
internal divisions

A

simple, few

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22
Q

Amniotes have _____ lungs with
_____ divisions which…

A

Complex, multiple

increases surface area for gas exchange

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23
Q

Adaptations to combat gravity when transporting blood

A

(1) higher blood pressure &
(2) valves in the veins to prevent backflow

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24
Q

Gas exchange with tissues occurs in

A

capillaries

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25
Q

Capillaries are

A

thin-walled and ‘leaky’

plasma is forced out of the vessels by high blood pressure. (returned by the lymphatic system)

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26
Q

Tetrapods have a _____ ______ cardiovascular system

A

double circuit

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27
Q

There is a ____ ____ present in all amniote hearts, but
its form varies

A

ventricular septum

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28
Q

types of ventricular septums

A

– A transient septum forms in turtles & lepidosaurs

– Permanent ventricular separation in crocs, birds andmammals

– Amphibians have no ventricular division

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29
Q

Coronary arteries are needed in

A

birds and mammals

because they have thicker ventricles and must work harder

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30
Q

Vision is _____ effective in air than water because….

A

more

light travels with less disturbance in air

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31
Q

The cornea of tetrapods focus light onto the retina with …

A

flatter lenses

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32
Q

how is the mechanism to focus light with the lens is different
between fish and tetrapods

A

– Fish move the lens

– Tetrapods change the shape of the lens (Except snakes)

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33
Q

Airborne sounds are transferred through a

A

bone or chain of bones in a middle ear

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34
Q

Middle ear is a

A

sound amplifier

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35
Q

mechanism of hearing

A

receive sound waves via the eardrum (tympanum),

Transfers to the oval window of the otic capsule via bone(s) movement of the oval window

transfers to movements of fluid in the inner ear

Stimulates hair cells in the organ of Corti within the lagena

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36
Q

ears of Sauropsid versus mammals

A

Sauropsids have one ear bone and a more superficial tympanum

Mammals have 3 ear bones and a deeper tympanum

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37
Q

how do amniotes reduce water loss

A

layers of keratinized epidermal cells which also protect it from wear

the skin has lipids which also reduce water loss (more effective)

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38
Q

amphibians skin is ___ ___ to water

A

Highly permeable

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39
Q

how is water lost

A

evaporates from the body’s surface via respiration and through the kidneys and feces

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40
Q

urinary bladder function

A

recovers water from the urine.

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41
Q

On land, temperature can vary _______ over short
distances, and can change ______

A

considerably, rapidly.

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42
Q

Heat capacity of water is ______ than air

A

Higher

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43
Q

how is thermoregulation accomplished

A

ectothermy and/or endothermy

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44
Q

Ectothermy

A

regulating body temperature by balancing the
movement of heat between an organism and its environment

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45
Q

Ectothermy is the Primary means of thermoregulation for

A

non-amniotes, turtles, lepidosaurs and crocodilians

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46
Q

Mechanisms of ectothermy include:

A

solar radiation, thermal radiation, convection, conduction, evaporation

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47
Q

Endothermy

A

Is the metabolic (chemical) generation of heat
Primary means of thermoregulation by birds and mammals.

48
Q

Endotherms typically have _____ higher metabolism
than similar-sized ectotherms.

A

7-10X

49
Q

Three Orders of Amphibians

A

Urodela (salamanders)

Anurans (frogs)

Gymnophiona (caecilians)

50
Q

Extant Amphibian Characteristics

A
  1. Well-developed limbs
    Except caecilians and some salamanders
    Salamanders have tails, and caecilians have short tails and frogs do not have a tail in adulthood
  2. Moist, permeable skin which contains mucus glands
    cutaneous gas exchange
    poison (granular) glands
  3. Are Carnivorous
  4. Operculum-columella middle ear bones
  5. Green rod cells in the retina
51
Q

Amphibian Characteristics-
swimming

A
  • Salamanders and
    caecilians swim by
    passing a sine
    wave down the
    body
  • Anurans thrust the
    hind legs
52
Q

Amphibians: 1. Salamanders

A
  • Order Urodela
  • Elongated body shape with four functional limbs
  • Move with walking-trot gait
  • Almost entirely limited to the northern hemisphere
  • Paedomorphosis is widespread
  • Many go through an aquatic larvae stage & lose gills during metamorphosis
  • Interestingly, one species-rich family of Plethodontidae is lungless
53
Q

Salamanders -
Plethodontidae

A

Many use tongue to capture prey
– The Bolitoglossine plethodontids
– Have binocular vision

54
Q

Amphibians: 2. Anura (frogs)

A

all continents except Antarctica

Skeletal system adapted for jumping

55
Q

Anura Skeletal adaptations:

A
  1. Elongated hindlimbs
  2. Fused tibia and fibula
  3. Elongated ilium
  4. Urostyle
  5. Few presacral vertebrae
    that are fused.
  6. Strong flexible pectoral
    girdle
  7. Also have binocular vision
56
Q

Anura Prey capture:

A
  • Aquatic species use suction to engulf food
  • Terrestrial and semi- aquatic species have long tongues that can be flipped out to capture prey
57
Q

Amphibians: 3. Caecilians

A

Order Gymnophiona

Legless, burrowing or aquatic amphibians of the tropics

Have no or greatly reduced eyes

Have dermal folds called annuli which gives a segmented appearance

Have dermal scales in the annuli

Have sensory tentacles between eye and nostril

58
Q

Amphibian Reproduction

A

Varied
* Most amphibians lay eggs (in water or on land or they carry their eggs)
* Eggs may hatch into aquatic larvae or mini-adults.
* Others retain eggs internally and give birth to metamorphosed young
* Parental care can vary

59
Q

Salamander Reproduction

A

Most salamanders exhibit internal fertilization

Males deposit a capsule of sperm
(spermatophore) supported by a gelatinous base

usualy oviparous rarely viviparous
* Most that breed in water lay eggs in water

60
Q

Anuran Reproduction short

A

breeding may last only a few days due to transient aquatic habitats

Males & females arrive at the same time

“Explosive breeding

61
Q

Anuran Reproduction Longer

A

breeding may last for several months

  • Males arrive at the breeding site first and
    defend territories
  • “Prolonged breeding”
62
Q

Anuran Reproduction overall

A

diverse species specific Advertisement calls (vocalizations) is a
characteristic of anuran breeding

high Energy and exposure to predators
Females respond when eggs are ready to be laid

Most anurans reproduce via external fertilization (some internal)

Males grasps female as a part of the mating process: amplexus (froggy style ;)

63
Q

Anurans- Tadpoles

A

very different from the adults.
As filter feeders, they can exploit ephemeral food resources not available to adults.

64
Q

Anurans- Metamorphosis to adults

A
  • Transition in body form from larva to adult
  • Stimulated by the hormone thyroxine
65
Q

Caecilian Reproduction

A

Internal fertilization

Males have a penis-like organ that is protruded from the cloaca

both oviparity and viviparity

Embryos of terrestrial species have filamentous gills

Embryos of aquatic species have sac-like gills

66
Q

Gas and Water Exchange amphibians

A
  • Amphibian skin is permeable to gases and water
  • A significant portion of their gas exchange is cutaneous.
    – Remaining is pulmonary respiration
  • Anurans rely more on lungs for oxygen uptake as temperature and their activity increases
67
Q

Amphibians do not drink water, those living in aquatic environments need to overcome the continuous influx of water how do they do it?

A

– Do this by producing urine
– Terrestrial amphibians possess a specialized pelvic patch for water uptake
– Highly vascularized skin in pelvic region for water absorption

68
Q

what does amniota represent as a group

A

-inner membrane in egg that protects the embryo (amnion)
-the membrane is derived from the embryo itself not from the mother

69
Q

what are amniotes divided into

A
  1. Sauropsida: birds, crocodiles, turtles, reptilians and tuatara
    – Extinct taxa include dinosaurs & pterosaurs (first group capable of flight)
  2. Synapsida –> mammals
    – Extinct taxa include pelycosaurs and therapsids
70
Q

sauropsid and synapsid linages

A
  • Synapsid and sauropsid lineages separated before many derived characters associated with terrestrial life emerged.
  • Therefore, the lineages independently developed many derived adaptations including endothermy, parental care and social behaviours
  • They also evolved different solutions to other selection pressures:
    1. Locomotion & Respiration
    2. Uptake of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide (i.e., gas exchange)
    3. Waste excretion that conserves water (water is a limiting resource)
71
Q

locomotion and respiration of sauropsids (early)

A
  • Early tetrapods had short limbs, sprawling posture and long tails
    -lizard walk
  • lungs decrease and increase in volume based on walking because of side to side motion
72
Q

locomotion and respiration of synapsids

A
  1. Upright posture with limbs more underneath the trunk
    -legs move independent of trunk
    -no affect on respiration
  2. Diaphragm
  3. Bounding gait
  4. Trunk vertebrae differentiated into thoracic and lumbar
73
Q

bipedal locomotion and respiration of sauropsids

A

Do not have a diaphragm, instead:
– pelvic movements
– ventral ribs (gastralia)

74
Q

gas exchange in tetrapods

A
  • To support higher levels of muscle activity associated with tetrapod evolution, more gas exchange was needed
    – Therefore, more surface area
    – Sauropsid and synapsids developed complex lungs but lung morphology varied.
  • i.e., evolved different solutions to the same problem.
75
Q

different structures of lungs

A

A. Lissamphibia
-simple sacs with tidal flow
-lung contains mixture of freshly inhales air and from previous breaths

B. alveolar lungs of mammals
-we both know how these work

C. Faveolar lungs of sauropsids
-air passages connected by many parabronchi with falveoli in their walls
-gas exchange occurs at falveoli
-air flow is unidirectional
-fresh air flows in one direction through parabronchi and falveoli and blood flows in the opposite direction

76
Q

Synapsid lungs

A
  • An Alveolar Lung
  • Air travels through the trachea to progressively smaller airways via the primary bronchi –> e.g. 23 levels of branching in the human
  • Air ultimately reaches the alveolar sacs, which are the sites of gas exchange
  • Tidal ventilation brings air into and out of the airways to the alveoli
  • The alveoli can be re-inflated due to the production of surfactants –> reduce the surface tension of water lining the alveoli
77
Q

bird respiration

A

Unique in 2 ways:
1. Have small tubules that radiate from parabronchi for gas exchange –> air capillaries
* Use crosscurrent exchange
2. Presence of air sacs
* Two groups –> anterior & posterior
* Not used for gas exchange –> act as bellows during respiratory cycle

  • Birds require 2 respiratory cycles to pass 1 unit of air through the respiratory system
78
Q

how is oxygen transported on land

A
  • High blood pressure is important for circulation but can cause problems for gas exchange in the lungs.
  • Solution: two blood circuits (pulmonary and systemic) created by a permanent septum in the ventricle (for most, not all)
    – Most likely not seen in ancestral amniote
    – Transient septum in turtles, lizards, snakes and tuatara
79
Q

waste elimination

A
  • ammonia (NH3), which is quite toxic, but soluble in water.
  • Nitrogenous wastes are primarily excreted in urine.
  • Terrestrial organisms need to deal with eliminating nitrogenous waste without losing much water
80
Q

solution to waste elimination

A
  • Synapsids excrete nitrogenous wastes as urea, which is more water soluble and less toxic.
  • Mammalian kidneys are adapted to producing concentrated urine, thereby conserving water.
  • Sauropsids produce uric acid which has low solubility in water and low toxicity.
    – Combines with ions (e.g., potassium, sodium) in the cloaca or bladder and forms a precipitate.
    – Water is reabsorbed and the precipitate expelled
81
Q

sensory system of amniotes

A
  • Sensory systems are diverse within and between synapsids and sauropsids
  • Differences exist in vision, chemosensation and hearing
  • Generally speaking:
    – Synpasids rely more on olfaction than vision.
    – Sauropsids have variable olfactory sensitivity but excellent vision (good depth perception)
82
Q

Lepidosaurs- characteristics

A

largest non avian reptiles

Predominantly terrestrial

Scales cover the skin

outer layer of epidermis sheds at intervals

reduction or loss of limbs

transverse cloacal slit

83
Q

2 orders of Lepidosaurs

A
  1. Rhynchocephalia- the tuatara

Only one extant species

  1. Squamata- the lizards and snakes

More than 10,000 species

84
Q

Order Rhynchocephalia: Tuatara

A

The tuatara (“spines on the back”)

One extant species : Sphenodon punctatus

Only in New Zealand

Nocturnal animals that feed on invertebrates and small vertebrates (frogs, lizards, birds).

Low active body temperatures

Live in burrows

85
Q

Squamates- lizards and snakes have ___ growth

A

Determinate growth- (eventually stop growing)

86
Q

Lizards (suborder Lacertilia)

A

range in size and body forms

87
Q

Snakes: suborder Serpentes

A

Probably evolved from a subterranean lineage of lizards

Range in size and body form

88
Q

Snake Characteristics

A

forked toung

flexible skull

ovi/vivipours

some have temp dependant sex most are genetic

most have no parental care

89
Q

turtle skeleton

A

Beta-keratin forms outer layer of horny scutes

Inside is lateral extension of ribs

Limbs inside ribs

males have concave plastron (turtle style ;))

90
Q

2 types of turtles

A

Cryptodires “hidden neck” (wide distribution, 11 families)

Pleurodires “side neck” (3 families, S Hemisphere)

91
Q

Turtle Respiration

A

Turtle ribs are fused to the shell so the Lungs attach to the carapace dorsally & laterally

expansion restricted by carapace

adjust lung volume with muscles that change gut position.

some species use cloacal or pharyngeal respiration

92
Q

Pharyngeal respiration-

A

when confined underwater they draw water into mouth and pharynx. Have highly vascularized papillae

93
Q

Cloacal respiration

A

in at least one species, the cloaca is lined with sacs with highly vascularized lining. Turtles pump water into and out of cloacal sacs.

94
Q

Turtle- other characteristics

A

incomplete septum between the ventricles of heart (Flow of blood is controlled partly by the relative resistance to flow in each circuit.)

endothermy and ectothermy

oviparous with internal fertilization

Temperature dependent sex determination

Little parental care

95
Q

aligator teeth and integmentary sensors

A

when mouth closed only see upper teeth

sensors only on head

96
Q

crocodile teeth and integumentary sensors

A

all teeth visible when mouth is closed

sensors on whole body

97
Q

Gharial head teeth and integumentary sensors

A

long snout

all teeth visible (mandibular synthesis on the 20th row

sensors on whole body

98
Q

False gharial head teeth and integumentary sensors

A

long snout

all teeth, ( mandibular fused at 16th row)

sensors on whole body

99
Q

Crocodylians: Other Characteristics

A

All are oviparous with hard-shelled eggs laid in a nest guarded by the female

Temperature-dependent sex determination

Predators

100
Q

The most ancestral birds

A

Center of gravity shifted to wings

Tail, including the pygostyle

Skeletal features for flight

Claw size

Larger sternum

Dietary specializations

101
Q

Birds

A

flight

Mostly diurnal

Have excellent vision

102
Q

flight adaptation 1 Streamlining and weight reduction

A

Streamlining of feathers and feet

Weight reduction adaptations include:

lack urinary bladders,

have one ovary and males lack a phallus and gonads regress after the breeding season

Skeletal features…

103
Q

adaptations for birds flight 2: Skeleton

A

same skeletal weight: body weight ratio as mammals

different distribution: leg bones are heavier and skull is lighter in birds

more rigid on thee periphery of bones

Center of gravity is beneath the wings

Large keeled sternum

Reduction in number

fusion of bones

pneumatosized bones

Elongated pelvic girdle: ischium & ilium are thin sheets and attached with a synsacrum

Tail is shortened to ~5 caudal vertebrae that ends in the pygostyle

104
Q

birds adaptations for flight 3: muscles

A

Major flight muscles are:

Pectoralis major

Supracoracoideus (up stroke)

Leg muscle mass varies with lifestyle

105
Q

birds Reproduction

A

Exclusively oviparous

Genetic sex determination

106
Q

Class Mammalia: Characteristics

A

Relatively low species richness

largest body size

Lactation

Hair

Three middle ear bones

Red blood cells without nucleus

107
Q

Mammal Taxonomy

A

Allotheria: extinct multituberculates

Prototheria: monotremes

Theria: includes metatheria & eutheria

108
Q

Allotheria

A

Lived during the Late Jurassic to early Cenozoic

Broad multi-cusped molars

Viviparous

Herbivorous or omnivorous

Terrestrial or arboreal

109
Q

Prototheria: The Monotremes (echidnas)

A

Cloaca: Have a single opening for excretory and reproductive functions

Lay eggs, leathery shell

No nipples, milk patch on the abdomen

No teeth

Electro-sensors on bill

110
Q

Metatheria: The Marsupials

A

Metatheria: The Marsupials

111
Q

Mammals Sex determination

A

Mammals have distinctive sex chromosomes X and Y

Males are heterogametic: XY

Females are homogametic: XX

Except for the platypus which has 5 sex chromosomes

112
Q

bird feather types

A

contour feathers: flight
secondary plumes: flight and insulation
Downey feathers, insulation

113
Q

geckos are ____ other lizards are ____

A

nocturnal

diurnal

114
Q

phosorial

A

underground

115
Q

zygodactylus

A

joining toes

Biol 211 Vertebrate Zoology (4 decks)

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