final test

Question 1

What are the three basic techniques used by researchers in social sciences to measure variables?

Answer 1

Observation, interviewing, and examining records and documents

Question 2

What are the basic steps in preparing for data collection involving observation as a data-gathering technique?

Answer 2

Select concepts; select variables; select a means for measuring those variables; and design a means for recording the measurements one will make.

Question 3

What is the difference between an interview guide (interview schedule) and a questionnaire? In which situation are each of them used?

Answer 3

A questionnaire is a list of questions which the research can ask the respondent or which the respondent can answer themselves. Interview guides are similar but differ in the way that the order of the questions is not fixed, and new ones may be added based on the conversation between the researcher and the participant. Questionnaires depend on the honesty of the participants. They are both used to gather information to measure the variables being studied. They can both be used together, or separately for practicality. They both have the same issues considering the relevancy of the questions.

Question 4

Explain in your own words what content analysis is.

Answer 4

Content analysis is characterized by recording the quantity of appearances of certain ideas, words, images, etc. in records or documents. When content analysis in television and radio programs must be done, it greatly resembles observation. First, one must clarify the hypothesis and clearly state the concepts and variables involved. The variables must be measurable through content analysis and the manner to do it must then be explained. Lastly, the units to report the results must be defined and a data summary sheet must be devised.

Question 5

Explain the difference between validity and reliability (regarding the measuring device).

Answer 5

Validity concerns how appropriate the measuring device is to adequately define the concept or measure the variable. Reliability, on the other hand, concerns how accurate the method of data-gathering is and if other researchers would arrive to the same conclusion with the same methods.

Question 6

What is a case study?

Answer 6

Case studies differ from other research designs by being focused on one case or entity at a specific point in time. They are not used to test a hypothesis.

Question 7

What do you measure (or study) and how do you measure it, when you do a longitudinal study?

Answer 7

It studies differences between case studies at different points in time to measure if (and how much) the relationship between the variables changes with time. It requires the realization of two or more case studies in the same manner, but at different times.

Question 8

What do you measure (or study) and how do you measure it, when you do a comparison study?

Answer 8

While the longitudinal study requires the case studies to be at different times, the comparison study can only occur when they are at the same time. It is used to compare two or more case studies and to measure the differences between two entities being studied in the same manner, at the same time.

Question 9

What do you measure (or study) and how do you measure it, when you do a longitudinal comparison study?

Answer 9

This type of study combines the three above-mentioned. It measures two or more entities over two or more periods of time, in the same manner. It is relevant to use to verify if and/or measure how much the differences between the entities studied have changed with time.

Question 10

What is the experiment as a research design?

Answer 10

Unlike the research designs previously mentioned which focus more on observing discrepancies between entities and recording data, experiments are used to test hypotheses. They measure the influence of one variable on another (dependent and independent concepts) with the help of an experimental group and a control group.

Question 11

How does one control for other variables?

Answer 11

First, one must be aware of the possibility that variables could be influencing the data produced. Second, these variables should be kept in mind during the structuring or the design of the study. For instance, by limiting them in the sample participants (picking a specific age group, socioeconomic status, etc.) All limitations (including variables which could not be effectively controlled) must be mentioned in the report.

Question 12

Why do researchers use sampling procedures?

Answer 12

It is often impossible to study the whole of the subjects of the research. Sampling procedures allow researchers to obtain accurate results through only a part of the whole, a quality sample. Samples reduce the needed time, energy, and money compared to studying entire populations.

Question 13

What is the difference between a random and a non-random sampling procedure?

Answer 13

Random sampling procedures assure a higher accuracy when applying the results to a larger group. Non-random sampling is better suited when no inferences to a larger group are being made, like when studying a specific phenomena or situation.

Question 14

What is an advantage and a disadvantage of random procedures?

Answer 14

They offer greater accuracy for generalization, but use more resources to set up.

Question 15

What is an advantage and a disadvantage of non-random procedures?

Answer 15

They are not suited for generalization, but provide a deeper understanding of specific situations.

Question 16

What is accidental sampling?

Answer 16

The participants are selected because they happened to be available. They meet at random, but this is not random sampling. The results can only be applied to them.

Question 17

What is quota sampling?

Answer 17

The researcher selects participants based on set criteria. This type is useful when a group or characteristic is relatively rare in the population but should still be included in the research. Like accidental sampling, however, the participants cannot be assumed to be representative of their group.

Question 18

What is snowball sampling?

Answer 18

When access to a specific group is more difficult and there are no public listings, a researcher could ask known individuals in the group to recommend others and so on.

Question 19

What is systematic sampling?

Answer 19

This type of sampling is possible when a full list of subjects is available. Researchers could draw two numbers, for example 3 and 8, and this would mean that they will begin by the third subject on the list and every 8th one going down the list. If one selected participant is unavailable, they can be replaced by the person preceding them. If one leaves the group under study, they could be replaced by the following name on the list. This replacement of names makes systematic sampling not as precise as others type of random sampling, but it provides an acceptable approximation and helps overcomes researchers’ biases.

Question 20

What is stratified random sampling?

Answer 20

This is a type of quota sampling. The researchers would divide the subjects of the research into groups for which they would have a quota and proceed to select a random group of participants for each, making them representative of their group.

Question 21

Which one of the nine types of sampling procedures presented in the textbook did you use in your survey activity?

Answer 21

Accidental quota sampling. The participants were all our friends. We limited our sample to 12 first years and 12 second years and up. We met at random, but the sample was not representative of all first years and second years.

Question 22

List ways of being considerate to your participants in a research

Answer 22

1. Researchers should be prepared; this includes the consent form.
2. Interviews and questionnaires should be clear and concise. The questions must remain relevant.
3. Questions asked must not invade the participants’ privacy.
4. Informing the participants of the research is important, but not by sharing what one hopes to find.
5. A consent form that is clear and in plain language must be signed by all participants.
6. Giving the participants a personal identification card, such as a business card, with ways to reach the researchers, helps with building trust.

Question 23

Principle 1: Researchers must treat with dignity and respect the persons, groups, and organizations who participate in their research.

Answer 23

This includes respecting participants’ rights, well-being, and privacy. There is always a need for respect for human dignity, free and informed consent, vulnerable persons, privacy and confidentiality, and justice and inclusiveness.

Question 24

Principle 2: Research must be based on knowledge of the work of others in the area and be conducted and/or supervised by persons qualified to do the work who have the necessary facilities to ensure the safety of participants.

Answer 24

It is unethical to carry out poorly planned or replicated research since it wastes the participants’ time. Supervision is also required in the process, for example, of interviewing participants when a situation is beyond a research’s ability to resolve. Professionals should be contacted prior to the data collection in order to help if the situation calls for it.

Question 25

Principle 3: The potential benefits of a research project must substantially outweigh the potential harm to the participants.

Answer 25

Researchers have a responsibility to minimize harm.

Question 26

Principle 4: Participants in research must be able to make a voluntary, informed decision to participate.

Answer 26

The decision to participate must be based on knowledge of the study, highlighting the important of a consent form. Participants should know what is demanded of them in terms of time, money, and information, for example. Risks of damage to a person should be carefully examined, especially when research involves a topic which can be sensitive. Participants should also be free to withdraw from a study. It is also important not to coerce a participant into involvement in the study; voluntariness is essential.

Question 27

Principle 5: Research is a public activity, conducted openly and accountable both to the researcher’s community and to the participants of the research.

Answer 27

This public nature is one of the strengths of research as a way to gain knowledge. All staff involved in a research project must be made fully aware of what is being studied and the procedures to do so.

Question 28

What are the five principles of research ethics?

Answer 28

Principle 1: Researchers must treat with dignity and respect the persons, groups, and organizations who participate in their research.
Principle 2: Research must be based on knowledge of the work of others in the area and be conducted and/or supervised by persons qualified to do the work who have the necessary facilities to ensure the safety of participants.
Principle 3: The potential benefits of a research project must substantially outweigh the potential harm to the participants.
Principle 4: Participants in research must be able to make a voluntary, informed decision to participate.
Principle 5: Research is a public activity, conducted openly and accountable both to the researcher’s community and to the participants of the research.

Question 29

What are the four basic questions to guide you in drawing conclusions?

Answer 29

1. What did you ask?
2. What did you find?
3. What do you conclude?
4. To whom do your conclusions apply?

Question 30

What did you ask?

Answer 30

Restating the hypothesis or research objective is important to remind both the researchers and the readers of the report of what specific questions the study tried to answer. A researcher must clearly determine the general area of concern, both the conceptual and the operational hypothesis, and how the hypothesis relates to the general area of concern. One might need to go back to the literature review to investigate if the findings refute and/or support previous studies.

Question 31

What did you find?

Answer 31

A researcher’s job is to interpret and analyze the results and to highlight the significant findings in the conclusion which relate to the problem statement. Interpreting the data simply means restating the relationships between the variables presented in figures and/or graphs in words. Only then can the data be applied to the problem statement indicating the implication of the findings without discussions or comments. Finally, the data can be evaluated, and the limitations of the study can be presented; researchers may comment on the results. Again, one might need to go back to the literature review to investigate if the findings refute and/or support previous studies.

Question 32

What do you conclude?

Answer 32

The conclusion clearly states what the data reveals in relation with the problem statement and links the problem statement to a larger issue. Does the data support the hypothesis or not? Are the results unclear? In five steps, one must restate the general aim of the research; restate the findings; indicate whether the hypothesis is supported or rejected, or whether the results are unclear; explain the implications for the larger issue; and make suggestions for future research.

Question 33

To whom do your conclusions apply?

Answer 33

Depending on the sampling procedure, this question can have two possible answers: the sample studied and the part of the population this sample represented. During the process of drawing conclusions, one usually goes from narrow (summarizing the implications of the empirical findings) to broader (the discussion of the implication of those findings), and this applies here as well. The broader part tends to be more relevant but is also more tentative.

Question 34

Why is it important to acknowledge the limitations of a study?

Answer 34

It shows that a researcher recognizes what else could have been accomplished if they had had more time/resources. It also implies that the conclusions are tentative. Researchers who wish to investigate the issue further may be guided in this way, knowing what additional research is needed following the results of the study.

Question 35

How would you define the process of “drawing conclusion”?

Answer 35

After careful analysis and interpretation, the implication of the findings in regard to the problem statement are presented in simple terms in order to increase knowledge and offer guidance about the broader issue.