Final Terms Flashcards
Ibrahim Pasha
Mehmed Ali’s son and chief military leader.
In 1824= was sent to help the OE in quelling the Greek rebellion.
After the intervention of EP on behalf of Greece in 1827, this action proved detrimental to Mehmed Ali. Ibrahim was sent to conquer Syria and Palestine (and later southern Anatolia), a campaign which succeeded in the victorious Battle of Nezib in 1839.
Ibrahim ruled the area until 1840
European forces intervened on behalf of the OE, forcing Mehmed Ali to put a stop on Ibrahim’s expansion.
Mustafa Kemal Ataturk
Beginning his career as an officer in the Ottoman army of Mehmet-6.
Attaturk with the national resistance forces which opposed the central government of Istanbul on behalf the nation’s jeopardized integrity. After a period of acting as the president of Ankara’s shadow government, Attaturk was able to cancel the Ottoman Sultanate and establish the state of Turkey instead. He ruled Turkey as a dictatorship and revolutionized the country with reforms aimed at turning it into a modern state by severing the connections to its Ottoman and Islamic past. He died in 1938, considered by many as the founder of modern Turkey.
Class Notes: Ataturk’s regime was designed to root out the Ottomans past and replace it with Western Orientation in all areas of national life.
Reshid Pasha
Was an Ottoman Statesman and diplomat. The chief reformer and mastermind of the Tanzimat’s first stage, Reshid Pasha created and announced the Guhlane decree which initiated the reform movement.
Within the new administration he helped create , he served as the Foreign Minister. In 1841, he was removed as a result on opposition to his reforms. He returned to office in 1845, continued with his reforms, and was once again permanently dismissed in 1852.
Gulhane Decree
Also known as the Decree of the Rose Garden, the Guhlane was an imperial edict which was announced on November 3rd 1839 to a crowd of foreign diplomats, as a response to the Ottoman defeat at the Battle of Nezib. It was a basic declaration of intentions which promised the residents of the Ottoman Empire:
guarantees to individual rights,
a better, more efficient tax system,
equality to people of all religion before the law and
a revised system of conscription to the army.
These promises were an attempt at enlisting the help of European powers Muhammad Ali, as well as an attempt to solve many of the tensions within the different populations of the Ottoman Empire, which threatened its existence.
Class Notes: The “Decree of the Rose Garden” on November 3rd 1839. Was published by the Ottoman foreign minister and one of the main reformers, Rashid Pasha following the battle of Nezib. The decree was a statement of intentions published by the Ottoman Empire which promised the following main reforms:
Cancellation of the Iltizam System
Legal Reforms: Secular Legal System was established, legal status of Muslims and non-Muslims was equalized. (The secularization efforts created potential tensions with the Ulama and the religious leaders, who felt that these reforms contradicted the spirit of the Shariya.)
Monetary Reforms: Establishment of the Ottoman Bank in 1840. Issues of new currency and bank notes however the empire was still in debt and economic difficulties.
Tax Reforms in the Provinces: attempt to cancel the Iltizam system and change the tax collection system → failure. Main challenge of the tax collection system was how to collect the proper amount of taxes from the remote provinces far away.
Educational Reforms: Establishment of schools and colleges which were based on the spirit of Secularism and Professional Education. Many of the future bureaucrats, administrators, professionals, and writers, Muslims and non-Muslims, were trained in these schools. Many of them will become dominant figures in the Empire later in the Turkish Republic.
*Rashid Pasha was dismissed from his role in 1852 following the opposition of the reforms.
Kemalism
Set of ideas which served as the guide for Attaturk’s reformist regime, which intended to severe connections with Turkey’s Ottoman-Islamic past and replace them with a modern, western orientation in all aspects of national life.
6 principles
Nationalism (the creation of a new independent Turkish identity),
Republicanism (as a state mechanism),
Populism (national solidarity),
Reformism (a commitment to ongoing reform)
Secularism
Statism (the intervention of the state in the economy, state capitalism)
This radical approach came in time to be viewed as Turkey’s secular state religion.
Class Notes: “Kemalism” based on Mustafa Kemal Ataturk’s domination of Turkey, independence, and self domination. These 6 principles designated the foundations of his regime and of his doctrine known as “Kemalism.”
Capitulations
They were commercial agreements between the Ottoman Empire and various European states, which granted favorable extraterritorial privileges to European foreign citizens. Comprising of rights which benefited their subjects with advantages in trading and residence within the territories of the Ottoman Empire, Europeans were resistant to Ottoman law and also exercised a great deal of economic thuggery. First granted to France in 1537, capitulations were gradually conceded to other European entities, and could not be revoked as a result of the Empire’s dependence on Europe; eventually, they were canceled at the onset of WWI.
H
Napoleon’s invasion of egypt
1ST major incursion of European powers into Ottoman-Muslim territory, the invasion resulted out of Napoleon’s interest in disrupting England’s communication with the East and securing a foothold for France in the Middle East region. After defeating both the Mamluks and the British, Napoleon was forced to retreat back to France after his defeat at the Battle of Aboukir. The French forces which remained to occupy Egypt initiated a series of reforms aimed at modernizing the country according to the tenements of the French enlightenment ideology, improving Egypt’s administration, education and agriculture. A joint Ottoman-British military force ended the occupation in 1801, and was succeeded by Mehmet Ali. Even though the role of the invasion is subject to much debate, many consider them to have proved instrumental in shaping Egypt as a de-facto independent and modern force within the region of the Ottoman Empire.
Class Notes: Immediate goal of invading Egypt was to gain access to India. Considerations of invading Egypt for Europe were spread by the ideas of the French Revolution and Egypt was a very important source of grain (cotton). The immediate military goal of the French was to strike out Britain’s communication routes to India. Napoleon was also motivated by commercial considerations, hope to colonize Egypt and establish it as a reliable source of grain for the French mainland. Napoleon hoped for the disengagement of Egypt from the Ottoman Empire through the development of a local Egyptian conscious separate identity.
1919 Revolution in Egypt
Beginning as demonstration in the urban areas of the country against the deportation of Zaghlul and other Wafdists, the 1919 revolution soon became a popular uprising as insurgencies broke out in all rural areas of Egypt. The revolution was important in that it (a) united all previously separate social strata of the country, proving they could mobilize from below in wide political consensus, (b) integrated both the competing militant and liberal nationalist factors and (c) emphasized secular-territorial ideals (as opposed to Islamic ones), thereby allowing religious minorities, as well as women, to take part in the struggle. Even though the revolution did not succeed at overthrowing the British occupation, the Wafdists were admitted back into Egypt and were allowed to appear before the Paris Peace Conference, resulting in the unilateral (and symbolic) British declaration of Egypt’s independence in 1922.
Class Notes: Began by students in Cairo, spread among other professionals and later spread outside of Cairo to the rural areas. Popular demand for independence. Very strong and violent British reaction. When Britain found out that the Paris Peace Conference was about to approve the protectorate over Egypt, they released Zaghlul and allowed him to participate in the conference.
Results and Effects of the Revolution:
Formative event in the history of Egypt, and its struggle for national independence.
It proved the ability of Egyptians to mobilize from “below” and showed a wide political modern involvement of wider segments in the Egyptian public.
It bridged between socio-political segments of the population, mainly the land-owners in the villages and the growing urban middle classes and united them around the idea of Egyptian national sovereignty.
The political arena in Egypt became very active and lively, the public became a factor that cannot be ignored.
The revolution created the foundation for the establishment of a strong Egyptian national movement, which combined the ideas of Hizb al-ummah (Egyptian liberal nationalism) and Hizb al-watani (more militant nationalism).
Symbols of Egyptian territorial nationalism, and not of Islam, were the prominent ones throughout the struggle for national independence.
Religious minorities, such as the Copts, Armenians etc., were also part of the national struggle.
Namik Kemal
An influential journalist and editor, which grew to prominence as the Young Ottoman’s leading ideologist, who criticized the Tanzimat reforms for being no more than superficial imitations of Europe. Instead, Kemal called for a representational parliamentary reform coupled with a constitution. To delineate his ideas, Kemal renovated old Ottoman words and instilled them with new meanings of liberal modern thought: Watan (homeland, to which one owes patriotic allegiance; Hurriyet (freedom, liberty); and Millet (used in the connotation of a nation,).
Class Notes: (1840-1888): Criticizes the Tanzimat reformers for imitating Europe. Advocated a new parliamentary system based on representation. Gave 3 basic ideas- Vatan (homeland), Hurriyet (freedom), Millet (community). A decentralist, who advocated for an open, liberal regime that would secure the loyalty of different groups to the empireà A decentralist regime, pluralistic and liberal.
Committee of
Union and Progress
Served as the basis for the “Young Turks” movement. This organization went through different and complicated stages of creation, which were characterized by competing and often contradicting interests, located both within and without the territories of the Empire. Their main interest was to main the integrity and existence of the Ottoman Empire, but the means through which would be achieved were fiercely contested until 1912; at which point, the centralist faction gained the upper hand and instilled an authoritarian, repressive regime, which broke away with the ideas of the Young Turk movement and actually alienate many inhabitants of the Ottoman Empire away from the administration.
Class Notes: CUP formed the basis of the Young Turks movement of opposition against Abdul Hamid. It strove to renew the Constitution Regime. In 1908, CUP manages to force Sultan Abdul Hamid to renew the 1876 Constitution, which he cancelled in 1878. The Young Turks emerged from the schools and educational systems which Abdul Hamid established. Most of their work was done outside the Empire. Two important cells of the CUP existed in: Damascus and Salonika which united and forced Abdul Hamid to reinforce the constitution of 1876. Abdul Hamid was deported to Salonika by the Young Turks and replaced by his brother Mehmett in 1909. Mehmett was a very weak Sultan so the Young Turks were basically in charge and established their own regime in the Ottoman Empire. The Young Turks were not Turkish Nationalists. They preached for Ottoman integrity. Their main goal was to keep the integrity and existence of the Ottoman Empire. The Young Turks suffered internal contradictions meaning that if they emphasized their being Turkish they would lose support of the non-Muslim Turks.
The young Ottomans
A small group of intellectuals, a comprised ruling elite members and former civil servants which operated for a short period of 5 years. Their ideology combined traditional Islamic values with modern liberal thought. They were critical of the Tanzimat reforms, which were regarded by them as repressive attempts of the central regime to superficially imitate the European nations; instead, they advocated representational parliamentary and constitutionalism as a means to ensure the true will and well-being of Ottoman citizens. While the movement evidently enjoyed limited political influence (the re-enactment of the constitution in 1876 and the replacement of Sultan Abdul-Aziz by Murat-V, its main significance remains ideological, and was instrumental in inspiring future generations of intellectual nationalists.
Class Notes: Young Ottomans were Liberal intellectuals, Ottoman Patriots, and devoted Muslims. Reforming the Ottoman Empire from BELOW, not from ABOVE. Combining European liberalism with Islam Promoting the ideas of Ottoman (not Turkish) patriotism and freedom, the implementation of a constitution Did not call for the cancellation of the Sultanate, but for a change in the political system, which would lead to a new ruler of patriotism to the state, not only to the ruler. Enjoyed limited political influence, mainly ideological influence 1876: Called for the implementation of a constitution for the deposition of Sultan Abdul Aziz (replaced by Murat the 5th, who was replaced in 1876 by Sultan Abdul Hamid).
Nizam I Cedid (M.ALI)
Part of the “new order” which was series of reforms carried out by Sultan Selim III, this was a new Ottoman infantry corps fully trained and equipped according to the latest European standards. It was formed in 1797 and recruited Turkish peasant youths from Anatolia, which was uncommon before, which later on also formed a modern artillery corps. The Sultan did not integrate them with the regular army which limited their role.
Class Notes: “New Order”, the reform program of Sultan Selim III. Also the name of his and Muhammad Ali’s new Western style army. Reforms organized by Ottoman Sultan Selim III (1789-1808). Internal administration, relations with the West, and most importantly reorganization of the army. The reforms usually had to face opposition powers usually the religious leaders the ‘Ulama. The new and strong European style army was the real goal of all the reforms. They were all channeled to support the army in different ways. Development of artillery units, engineering corps, cavalry and navy. The new army was based on soldiers, mainly peasants, who were recruited by force (Khaled Fahmy’s article “All the Pasha’s Men”) as deconstruction of the army from the point of view of the oppressed soldiers.
1841 FIRMAN MUHAMAD ALI
Firman: Sultanic Decree
Purpose of Mehment Ali’s actions was to secure his dynastic rule in Egypt. After waging successful battles against the Ottoman Empire, The Battle of Nezib, which Mehmet Ali, made the Sultan realize that he will have no choice but to grant Mehmet Ali his wishes. After intervention of European powers on behalf of the Ottomans, Ali was forced to relinquish control of his occupied territories in Syria and Lebanon. In return, The Sultan issued a Sultanic decree on June 1st 1841, granting Mehmet Ali and his dynasty hereditary rule of the Egypt, a decision which resulted in the de-facto independence of the country.
Balfour Declaration
Dated November 2, 1917, The declaration was made in a letter from Arthur James Balfour, Foreign Secretary of Britain, to Lord Rothschild and was purportedly meant to rally the support of Jewish populations . It basically pledged Britain’s favoring of the establishment of a Jewish national home in Palestine, on the condition that nothing would be done which might prejudice the rights of the existing communities in the country. The declaration conflicted with the Sykes-Picot decision to leave Palestine under international control, as well as promises made to Hussein’s as to the undetermined future of Palestine.
Treaty of sevres 1920
Signed in 1920, this treaty concluded the post-WWI peace terms between the Ottoman Empire and the Entente forces. Defined the partitioning of Ottoman territory which was awarded to the different allies (southern Anatolia divided between France and Italy, western Anatolia given to Greece), secured independence and autonomy for the Armenians and Kurds (respectively) and solidified former agreements which were made between them during the war (Sykes-Picot and McMahon-Hussein). It also exacted military and economic limitations on the Ottomans. The foreign occupation of territories which were considered integrally Muslim-Turkish, as well as the heavy punishment exacted on what remained of the Empire, was resisted by Attaturk’s shadow government in Ankara, which opposed the placating policies of the central government in Istanbul.
Class Notes: Economic and foreign restriction of Turkey by the Allies. Capitulations to be restored. Limitations on the army- up to 50,000 soldiers.
