Final stuff Flashcards
What does modern landscape ecology explore
Modern Landscape Ecology explores interactions among ecosystem ‘patches’ regardless of area and more generally to explore the issue of scale.
what did Levin say about is the central problem in ecology
The problem of pattern and scale is the central problem in ecology, unifying population biology and ecosystems science, and marrying the basic and applied ecology’ Levin 1992.
why is scale important for landscape ecology
Understanding scale is critical because the factors that influence pattern and underlying processes change over time and space.
Vegetation structure: at broad scales vegetation structure has strong links with climate. At finer scales, factors like disturbance history, elevation, soils, may be more important.
give an example for how things vary temporally
Soil organic matter accumulation varies across temporal scales.
→ On longer time scales organic matter accumulation varies with successional stage, but shows an increasing trend
→ Inter-annual variation is associated with temperature
→ Daily variation is associated with wind and arthropod activity.
Give an example for how things vary spatially
Least flycatcher and American redstarts are birds that occur in eastern deciduous forest.
They are competitors for the same food resources and coexist through niche differentiation
At the patch scale their abundance is negatively correlated (where you find one you won’t find the other)
At region scale their abundance is positively correlated (where you find one you can find the other)
Patterns, processes, and relationships among variable vary with scale
what is the focal level, and level above and below
Landscape context provides boundary conditions, interactions of adjacent sites
The focal level is the scale you went to look at
The level below (-1) gives specificity, mechanism, components, and initiating conditions
Briefly describe the history of landscape ecology
This field came to prominence in the 1980s in response to growing recognition that spatial context and scale matter and an increased number of environmental problems that were impacting larger areas (fragmentation, eutrophication, habitat transformation, etc)
Responding to these problems requires making decisions at broad scales (and scaling-up research conducted in small areas).
Was facilitated by space borne satellites and technological developments in computers.
There are two lineages of landscape ecology. We focus on the American (Allerton park) school.
what does Spatial heterogeneity impact
Spatial heterogeneity impacts populations, communities, and ecological processes and is vital to ecosystem management and conservation.
what does landscape ecology explore
Landscape ecology explores spatial pattern (heterogeneity), underlying processes, and the role of humans in creating landscape scale patterns and processes.
provides insight into processes governing spatial pattern and the appropriate scale to investigate processes.
What are landscapes
Landscapes are mosaics (patchworks) of interacting ecosystems.
The emphasis here is on interactions between different ecological elements.
Freedman et al. 2015. define a landscape as: “a heterogeneous land area with repeated forms at any scale”
what are patches
Patches are homogenous cover types within a landscape
Patch boundaries can be abrupt (forest/wetland margin) or diffuse (treeline ecotones)
The contemporary perspective in landscape ecology defines patches with respect to species requirements. This organism centric perspective emphasis that landscapes can occur at any spatial scale.
what are landscape corridors
Corridors: linear patches that are surrounded by a different patch type. Often anthropogenic, but can also have natural origin
what are landscape networks
Networks: habitat mosaics consisting of a series of interconnected linear features
how can you describe a landscape as a mosaic and matrix
Landscapes are heterogenous mixtures of patches, corridors, and networks. This structure is often described as a mosaic
The dominant landscape element / patch type is often referred to as the matrix
what are physical factors of landscape pattern
Microclimate and Topography. Factors like solar radiation, temperature, and moisture change with elevation and aspect.
Geology, landforms, and hydrology. Variation here influences soils texture and depth, nutrient levels, soil moisture, pH, etc
what are biological factors of landscape pattern
Demographic factors. Processes like seed dispersal, establishment, mortality, and predation, can generate a spatial pattern.
The outcomes of competition or facilitation result in differential growth and expansion among species.
Where resources vary spatially this process can lead to large difference patterns, in ecosystem structure and community composition
what are disturbances
Natural and anthropogenic disturbances alter biotic and abiotic conditions creating landscape pattern across various spatial and temporal scales.
Examples:
- Fire-driven mosaics in the boreal forest
- Agricultural landscapes
- Logging activity in forested areas
- Urbanization / sprawl
what is fragmentation
Fragmentation is a landscape-scale process that disrupts the continuity of pattern or process.
It is a process where continuous habitat becomes reduced in area and divided into two or more areas.
Different species will be differentially affected. Consider the difference between those species that require larger territories or depend (for food or habitat) on native vegetation found in two (now isolated) habitat types
why is scale important for landscape ecology
Scale describes the spatial or temporal dimension of an object of process.
Are we making measurements at cm, m, km? over hours, years, centuries?
generally spatial and temporal scales are correlated. (spatiotemporal scales)
what is scale and its two defining qualities
Scale describes the spatial or temporal dimension of an object or process
It is characterized by two parameters: grain and extent, which set the upper and lower bounds of resolution.
Grain is the size of the smallest homogenous unit: lower limit of resolution, individual units of observation
Extent is the overall size of the area under investigation: upper limit of resolution, bound of the study area.
Grain and extent are typically correlated.
what is scaling up
Scaling refers to the process of adjusting a value measured at one scale to estimate what would be measured at another scale.
Scaling up: using fine scale measurements to estimate conditions at a broader scale.
what is downscaling
Downscaling: using broad-scale data (or model projections) to estimate fine scale conditions
scaling is not a straightforward process
how have bird populations changed in Canada since 1970
- Waterfowl have gone up 46%
- Birds of prey have gone up 35%
- Wetland birds have gone up 21%
- Marine birds haven’t changed
- Forest birds have gone down 1%
- Arctic birds are down 28%
- Long-distance migratory birds have gone down 29%
- Shore birds have gone down 42%
- Aerial insectivores have gone down 43%
- Grassland birds have gone down 67%
wince the beginning of the 20th century, what has the net change in birds been
Globally there is a net change of nearly 3 billion birds since the beginning of the 20th century
how does climate change affect birds
Pretty much all of North America is increasing in temperature, with the northern regions increasing the most
Many regions will get more precipitation as temperatures increase. Northern and Coastal regions especially will get more rain, while southern regions like mexico will get drier
The changes in temperature will have a large impact on birds.
It will impact their breeding.
In the pacific North west the risk for birds is likely the highest.
Extreme spring heat and Fire weather are some of the biggest threats for birds.
what is the pacific flyway
Ex: Western Sandpipers migrate from their non breeding grounds that extend part way down South America, up to breeding grounds near Alaska.
This means protecting one area isn’t enough for them.
The Pacific Flyway spans from Mexico to Alaska and is used by many migratory birds.
how can you focus on a specific habitat by understanding bird behaviour
It would be impossible to protect the entire Pacific Flyway
One type of really important habitat is estuaries. Which are essential for their migration.
give an example of how you can define spatial extent and grain for the Pacific Northwest
Spatial Extent: Picking an area: ex 344,000,000 square kilometres along the pacific northwest coast
Spatial Grain: Dividing the area into 10 square kilometres likely gives enough information about one estuary at a time, but is still feasible, and doesn’t lump together multiple estuaries.
give an example of how you can define temporal extent and grain for the Pacific Northwest
Temporal Extent: 1850-now is the period in which the industrial revolution has been impacting the climate. During much of this time there is temperature and precipitation data from western scientists. Satellite data since 1980 is very useful. So the temporal extent could be 1980-present.
Temporal Grain: Since birds migrate year round, it is useful to look closer than yearly average data. Monthly chunks give a good amount of detail, while still being possible to look through compared to daily views.
what is permafrost
Permafrost is ground that is frozen for two or more years
Most of Canada is frozen year round in permafrost. With some areas having been frozen for thousands of years.
In the north it is Continuous permafrost (everything frozen)
Lower it gets Dis-continuous, then sporatic, then isolated.
how does ice content affect melting thermafrost
Permafrost with very little Ice stays more stable as it thaws
While Permafrost with significant Ice becomes very unstable and muddy when thawing.
what are retrogressive thaw slumps
When areas of permafrost thaw on a slope, the soil can slide downwards causing a thaw slump. Can expand yearly.
Some form on the sides of lakes (generally smaller), sides of creeks or rivers (generally larger), coastal environments or other environments
Definition: A landslide in permafrost terrain which enlarges progressively due to ablation of exposed massive ice or ice-rich sediments.
is thaw slump activity intensifying
Rate of Retreat can get up to 30m/yr
Measuring average rate of active thaw slumps in 1950-1973 compared to 1973-2004 found that the rate of slump headwall expansion was around double in the later time period.
So Slump Activity is intensifying
But why?
The cause is likely due to an increase in temperature.
But at the time of research based on satellite photo’s, there was no way to be sure.
how can fine-scale controls of slump growth be used to understand why thaw slumps are happening
Net radiation controls the rate of ground ice loss and the rate of headwall retreat.
Air temperature or thawing degree hours can be used to predict the rate of ground ice loss.
Site-scale factors are also important here.
Shows that increasing temperatures cause slump activity to increase.
Precipitation is also important
what are mega slumps
Slumps more than 5 ha in area, have headwalls greater than 4m high, and debris flows that descend from the slump scar in the lower valley area.
Have debris tongues that can fill river areas.
why does slump activity vary across the western arctic
Change is occurring in multiple regions, but slump activity varies across the western Arctic.
Why?
Colder Environments with cold permafrost environments are especially vulnerable since they have more frozen water in the ground.
Warmer areas, where some of the ground ice has been thawed in recent history are less vulnerable.
what determines slump activity in regards to geography
Overlaying graphs of slumps with surficial geology.
You found that ice rich morainal deposits are correlated with higher slump vulnerability.
The margin of the historical extent of the laurentine ice sheets 15,000 years ago is highly correlated with slumps.
what are ecosystem services
Ecosystem services are the conditions and processes through which natural ecosystems and the species that make them up sustain and fulfill human life - Daily 1997
They are the benefits people obtain from ecosystems
what do ecosystem services include
These include
- provisioning services such as food and water
- regulating services such as regulation of floods, drought, land degradation, and disease
- Supporting services such as soil formation and nutrient cycling
- Cultural services such as recreation, spiritual, religious and other nonmaterial benefits
what are provisioning services
Provisioning services
Goods and direct use values
Commodities valued for both consumptive local use and productive market use
Fuel, vegetables, fruits, meat, medicine, materials, etc
what are supporting services
Supporting Services
The energy fixed through photosynthesis is fundamental to all life.
Carbon dioxide + water + light → Oxygen + water + glucose
Soil creation and Conservation
Plant roots, fungi, worms, and other soil invertebrates build, aerate and maintain soils
Biological nitrogen fixation
what are regulating services
Climate Regulation:
Ecosystems moderate macro and microclimate.
Water transpired by plants falls again as rainfall
The Carbon cycle maintains a hospitable climate
Water Treatment:
Water and air purification
Biological communities can break down many harmful toxins (heavy metals, pesticides, sewage, human waste, agricultural runoff)
Flood regulation:
Wetland and riparian vegetation provide natural flood protection
Channel alteration and wetland conversion increase flood severity
what are cultural services
Areas of like
The Sacred Grove of Osun
Mount Kaliash
Aullaviat / Anguniarvik
Whitemud creek
what is the value of all ecosystem services
Constanza et al. estimated the value of global ecosystem services as 16-54 trillion USD. Nature 1997 387: 253-260
3x the GDP of the planet at the time
What are questions of ecological integrity and services
What degree of ecological complexity is needed to provide reliable ecological services?
How much diversity is required for stable ecological productivity?
To what extent can ecosystem management and technology substitute for the role of relatively undisturbed ecosystems in the provisioning of ecosystem services
What was the millennium Ecosystem assessment
Detailed Assessment of Global Ecosystem Health (2005)
1360 experts from 95 countries
850 reviewers
80 reviewing editors
Partnership of UN agencies, conventions, business, non-governmental organizations with a multi-stakeholder board of directors
Connects Ecosystem Services with Constituents of well being for a person
All the benefits we gain from the ecosystems, how intensely they are linked, potential for mediation by socioeconomic factors
Also assessed the impacts the stresses on different habitats, their intensity, and trend in intensity.
Ex: Tropical forests have a low but rapidly increasing impact from climate change.
To really understand the situation we need information on the Social, political, cultural, economic, etc relationships.
The effects of ecological change on ecosystems services and human well-being are influenced by socio-political processes.
what are MEA key uncertainties
What impacts will sociopolitical processes have: Globalization, leadership, poverty and inequality, technology, etc.
The MEA used scenario planning to assess these processes.
Scenario planning is a tool used to assess possible futures in light of key uncertainties.
Generates plausible futures not predictions
What are Mea scenario storylines
takes Present conditions and trends
Context: 1. Increasingly globalized 2. Increasingly regionalized
Approaches: 1. proactive globalization 2. Reactive management
Possible futures:
12: global orchestration
11: technogarden
22: order from strength
21: adapting mosaic
what is the global orchestration future
Globalized and Reactive
Globally connected society that focuses on global trade and economic liberalization and takes a reactive approach to ecosystem problems but that also takes strong steps to reduce poverty and inequality and to invest in public goods such as infrastructure and eduction
what is the order from strength future
Order from strength
Regionalized and reactive
Regionalized and fragmented world, concerned with security and protection, emphasizing primarily regional markets, paying little attention to public goods, and taking a reactive approach to ecosystem problems
what is the technogarden future
Globalized and Proactive
Globally
connected world relying strongly on environmentally sound technology, using highly managed, often engineered, ecosystems to deliver ecosystem services, and taking a proactive approach to the management of ecosystems in an effort to avoid problem
what is the adaptive mosaic future
Regional and proactive
Regional watershed scale ecosystems are the focus of political and economic activity. Local institutions are strengthened and local ecosystem management strategies are common; societies develop a strongly proactive approach to the management of ecosystems
what are key insights from the four MEA future
Direct and indirect drivers will increase some ecosystems services and decrease others
Food production and water use will both increase
Continued land use change will drive species loss 12-18%
Proactive futures, and globalized futures are the best in terms of ecosystem conservation
what are the impacts on ecosystem services in MEA futures
Each future has different supply of each ES.
Global Orchestration increases in Provisioning services and Cultural services, while have less Regulating services, supporting services, and Ecological engineering capacity and knowledge.
Order from strength decreases in everything
Adapting Mosaic only losses Provisioning services
Technogarden only losses cultural services.
