Final Study Notes Flashcards
What research contexts is the Chi-Square test commonly used?
Epidemiology, sociology, market research, etc.
How are significant differences determined in post hoc tests?
By comparing adjusted p-values or confidence intervals.
What is the purpose of regression analysis?
To make predictions based on the relationship between variables.
What assumptions are made in ANOVA?
The main assumptions are normality, homogeneity of variances, and independence of observations.
In what situations is the Chi-Square test commonly used?
It is used for analyzing categorical data to determine associations or goodness-of-fit.
What are degrees of freedom?
They represent the number of independent pieces of information available for estimation.
How is the standard error of the mean interpreted?
It indicates the variability of sample means around the population mean.
How are regression results interpreted?
By examining the significance of coefficients, coefficient of determination, and residuals.
What are post hoc tests in ANOVA?
They are used to determine which specific group means differ significantly from each other after obtaining a significant ANOVA result.
How is the Chi-Square test statistic calculated?
It involves summing the squared differences between observed and expected frequencies divided by the expected frequencies.
What does the Chi-Square test for goodness-of-fit compare?
It compares observed frequencies to expected frequencies based on a known distribution.
What are the components of the Chi-Square test?
observed frequencies, expected frequencies, and the Chi-Square test statistic.
What does the Chi-Square test of independence determine?
if there is a relationship between two categorical variables.
What does the coefficient of determination indicate in regression analysis?
It represents the proportion of the variance in the dependent variable explained by the independent variable.
What is the decision rule in hypothesis testing?
If the p-value is less than the significance level, reject the null hypothesis; otherwise, fail to reject it.
How is a confidence interval interpreted?
a range within which the population parameter is estimated to lie with a certain level of confidence.
How is the standard error of the mean calculated?
Population standard deviation divided by the square root of the sample size.
What assumptions are made in the Chi-Square test?
Independence of observations and expected frequencies.
How many degrees of freedom are involved in ANOVA?
one for between-groups and one for within-groups.
How is the regression equation interpreted?
It predicts the value of the dependent variable based on the value of the independent variable.
What is the range of correlation coefficients?
-1 to 1.
How is the strength of correlation interpreted?
Close to 1 for strong positive/negative correlation, close to 0 for weak correlation.
How is the F-statistic interpreted in ANOVA?
It compares between-group variance to within-group variance.
What are the steps involved in conducting a Chi-Square test?
Data collection, expected frequency calculation, test statistic calculation, and interpretation.
In what fields is regression analysis commonly used?
Psychology, economics, public health, and many others.
What is Type II error in hypothesis testing?
Accepting the null hypothesis when it’s false.
What are the limitations of the Chi-Square test?
It assumes independence of observations and may not handle small expected frequencies well.
What are the components of the regression equation?
Intercept, slope, predictor variable, and predicted variable.
What does the null hypothesis state in ANOVA?
All group means are equal.
How is the strength of correlation interpreted?
Close to 1 for strong positive/negative correlation, close to 0 for weak correlation.
How is the F-statistic interpreted in ANOVA?
It compares between-group variance to within-group variance.
What are the advantages of ANOVA over multiple t-tests?
It reduces the likelihood of Type I Error and can handle multiple factors.
Who equated statistical literacy with basic citizenship skills?
H.G. Wells.
What is the primary goal of statistics?
Drawing conclusions about populations based on sample data.
What dietary habit was linked to early death in a study by Virtanen et al.?
Diet rich in animal protein.
What does statistics involve?
Collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting data.
Why is it important to study statistics?
To evaluate scientific evidence responsibly.
What type of graph is used for displaying grouped data?
Histograms.
What does the term “mode” represent in statistics?
The most frequently occurring value in a dataset.
What is the measure of central tendency that’s resistant to extreme values?
Median
What Excel function calculates the median of a dataset?
=MEDIAN(data_set).
What Excel add-in provides tools for statistical analysis?
Analysis ToolPak.
What measures the total spread of data from highest to lowest?
Range
What is the sum of squared deviations from the mean?
Variance
What divides a dataset into four equal parts?
Inter-Quartile Range (IQR).
What measures the uncertainty of the sample mean as an estimate of the population mean?
Standard Error of the Mean (SEM).
What provides a range within which the population parameter is estimated to lie?
Confidence Intervals (CIs).
What are the two main categories of variables?
Quantitative (numerical) and qualitative (categorical).
What Excel function calculates the mean of a dataset?
=AVERAGE(data_set).
What is the ultimate goal of collecting data?
To obtain necessary information and knowledge.
What type of distribution is symmetrical with a single peak?
Normal Distribution.
What Excel function finds the mode of a dataset, if available?
=MODE(data_set)
What is the primary goal of drawing conclusions about populations based on sample data?
To make informed decisions in uncertain situations.
What does the term “median” represent in statistics?
The middle value when data is arranged in ascending or descending order.
What organizes data into a table format showing frequencies of each value?
Frequency Distributions.
What does statistics help in besides data description?
Making inferences and studying causal relationships.
What type of variable is manipulated in an experiment?
Independent variable.
What measures the average distance of data points from the mean?
Standard Deviation.
What is the main goal of using Excel in statistical analysis?
To facilitate data entry and analysis.
What type of graph is used for displaying nominal data?
Bar graphs.
What is the term for the most frequently occurring value in a dataset?
Mode
What is the measure of central tendency that’s affected by outliers?
Mean
What does regression analysis calculate?
Predicts one variable based on another.
Common measures of variability?
Range, SD, variance.
Main types of frequency distributions?
Ungrouped and grouped.
Purpose of data collection?
Obtain knowledge and information.
What is the importance of studying statistics?
Evaluating evidence responsibly.
What are the consequences of mathematical innumeracy?
Less apparent than illiteracy.
