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Public Speaking > Final's Preperation > Flashcards

Final's Preperation Flashcards

1
Q

How does public speaking differ from a normal conversation?

A
  • Planned (more practice, preparation, &research)
  • Formal (less slang/casual language, more physical distance between speaker & audience, more controlled gestures &
    movements)
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2
Q

What are the three pillars of the communication process?

A

1) Communication as Action
2) Communication as Interaction
3) Communication as Transaction

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3
Q

Describe communication as action

A

○ Linear: one-way messages
○ Source: encodes message
○ Message: what is said & how
○ Channel: how message is transmitted
○ Receiver: decodes message
○ Noise: interferes with message & has 2 types: internal (bad mood, tiredness….), or external, and might be both.

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4
Q

Describe communication as interaction

A

As message is sent, feedback to the sender is provided by receiver. Communication
happens within a context, which is the environment/situation in which the speech occurs.

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5
Q

Describe communication as transaction

A

○ Communication happens simultaneously
○ The sender receives message
○ The receiver also sends message

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6
Q

What are the steps of preparing a speech?

A

1) Select and narrow topic, which should be important, appropriate, & relevant to listeners’ interests, expectations, and
knowledge
2) Determine purpose
3) Develop central idea
4) Generate main ideas

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7
Q

What are the strategies for selecting a topic?

A

1) brainstorming
2) listening & reading topic ideas
3) scanning web directories

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8
Q

What are the main purposes of a speech? what are the others?

A

Main: to inform or to persuade
Others: to entertain or to teach a moral lesson

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9
Q

How to determine the central idea?

A

complete declarative sentence, direct, specific, single idea, & reflects how topic affects audience (At the end of the speech, the audience will be able to…)

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10
Q

How to generate the main idea?

A

how ideas support the central idea, why it is true, types of examples, causes & effects

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11
Q

How to speak ethically?

A

1) Have a clear & responsible goal
2) Use sound evidence and reasoning
3) Be sensitive to & tolerant of differences
4) Be honest
5) Do not plagiarize
6) Do your own work
7) Acknowledge your sources (quotes, statistics, citations…)

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12
Q

Define accommodation

A

Sensitivity to the feelings, needs, interests, and backgrounds of other people

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13
Q

Who are ethical listeners?

A

1) Communicate expectations and feedbacks
2) Are sensitive to and tolerant of differences
3) Critically evaluate the speaker

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14
Q

How to speak credibly?

A

Be credible
Be competent, knowledgeable, dynamic, and trustworthy.

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15
Q

What are the aim of vivid descriptions?

A

Vivid descriptions are considered as a piece of evidence in speeches, they aim to draw mental images.

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16
Q

What is listening?

A

The process by which receivers select, attend to, understand, remember, and respond to senders’ message

○ Select: pick one message
○ Attend: focus on that message
○ Understand: make sense of message
○ Remember: recall information

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17
Q

What are the barriers of effective listening?

A

1) Failure to select, attend, understand or remember
2) Information overload (“Tuning out”)
3) Personal concerns (thoughts distract)
4) Outside distractions (people & sounds)
5) Prejudice: judging so soon
6) Differences between hearing & thinking (processing words faster than they are given)
7) Receive apprehension (fear of misunderstanding or misinterpreting spoken messages)

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18
Q

How to become a better listener?

A

1) Listen with your eyes (pay attention to nonverbal messages)
2) Accurately interpret the message

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19
Q

How to accurately interpret the message?

A

1) Focus on the message
2) Consider context of nonverbal messages
3) Look for several cues
4) Keep emotions in check
5) Avoid jumping to conclusions
6) Practice listening
7) Become an active listener (remain alert, re-sort what is heard, rephrase what is heard, repeat the key information)
Understand your listening style:
a) People/relational-Oriented: feelings & emotions.
b) Action/Task-Oriented: organized & brief.
c) Content/Analytical-Oriented: facts & details.
d) Time-Oriented: succinct/brief messages.
e) Time-Oriented: succinct/brief messages.
f) Critical: Evaluating messages
○ Identify your listening goal: for pleasure, for information, to emphasize, or to evaluate.
○ Listen for major ideas: enumerations (listing), transitions (connectors), summaries.

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20
Q

What are the pillars of critical thinking?

A

1) Critical listening
2) Separate facts from inferences
3) Evaluate the quality of evidence
4) Evaluate the quality of logic and reasoning

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21
Q

What is critical listening?

A

Evaluating quality of information presented, and making judgments about conclusions observed.

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22
Q

What is the difference between facts and inferences?

A

○ Fact: proven to be true
○ Inference: evaluation that is not directly observed.

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23
Q

What is the difference between logic and reasoning?

A

○ Logic: formal system of rules used to reach conclusion.
○ Reasoning: drawing conclusion from evidence.

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24
Q

What is rhetorical criticism and how to do it?

A

Evaluating a speech’s effectiveness & appropriateness.
How?
- Giving descriptive, specific, positive, constructive, and realistic feedbacks.
- Giving feedback to yourself to recognize your strengths.

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25
Q

What are rhetorical strategies and how do we analyze them?

A

○ Rhetorical strategies: methods & techniques (words, behaviors, images) that speakers employ to achieve their goals.
When analyzing them we pay attention to: speech goal, organization, speaker’s role, tone of speech, intended audience.

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26
Q

What are the elements of a speech?

A

1) Audience
2) Speaker
3) Message

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27
Q

What are the steps to become an audience-centered speaker?

A

1) Gather information about your audience
2) Analyze information about your audience: asking & examining information about listeners
3) Ethically adapt to your audience: use listeners’ information to adapt messages, help achieve ethical goal(s), and not fabricating information)

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28
Q

How to gather information about your audience?

A

1) Informally: demographics, age, education, religious views…
2) Formally: open-ended questions (unrestricted answers), or closed-ended question (limited answers)

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29
Q

How to analyze your audience before speaking?

A

Demographically using:
▪ Age
▪ Gender
▪ Sex
▪ sexual orientation
▪ Ethnicity (nationality, religion, language, ancestral heritage)
▪ Race
▪ Group membership (religious, political, work, social, service)
▪ Socioeconomic status (income, occupation, education)

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30
Q

What is ethnocenticism?

A

The assumption that one’s own cultural perspectives and methods are superior to those of other cultures

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31
Q

Situational Audience analysis includes:

A
  • Time (when, how long)
  • Location (type of room, arrangement of chairs)
  • Occasion (event)
  • Audience size
32
Q

If audience seems bored:

A

1) Tell a story
2) Consider humor
3) Increase rate of speech
4) Give personal examples

33
Q

If audience seems confused:

A

1) Use redundancy
2) Phrase ideas differently
3) Ask audience to summarize
4) Use a visual aid

34
Q

If audience seems to disagree:

A

1) Provide more evidence
2) Remind them of your credibility
3) Give more facts and a fewer stories
4) Give information visually

35
Q

Types of supporting material

A

1) Illustrations
2) Descriptions
3) Explanations
4) Definitions
5) Analogies
6) Statistics
7) Opinions

36
Q

What are the reasons to use definitions?

A

1) Technical reason: specialized or unknown terms might be defined
2) speaker may have shown examples of how concepts apply to situations

37
Q

Types of definitions:

A

1) Classification: dictionary definition
2) Operational: applied definition of how does something work

38
Q

Types of analogies:

A

▪ Literal: comparing between two things that are highly similar
▪ Figurative: comparing two dissimilar things using figures of speech (simile, metaphor, personification)

39
Q

Types of opinions:

A

▪ Expert testimony: statements of recognized authorities (often more credible)
▪ Lay testimony: statements of nonexperts with firsthand knowledge (often more emotional)
Literary quotations: opinions or descriptions by expert writers/famous speaking in a memorable way (often
have more impact)

40
Q

How to select the best supporting material?

A

1) Proximity: support relating more closely with listeners is better
2) Correctness: details are better for listeners to remember
3) Variety: varying the supporting material will reach more listeners
4) Humor: listeners might appreciate wit
5) Suitability: pick support appropriate for speaker, audience, and occasion

41
Q

Ways of organizing main ideas:

A

1) Topically: ideas naturally divide, cover types of topics, and broken down by:
○ Recency (save most memorable point for last)
○ Primacy (first point is most convincing)
○ Complexity (simple to complex points)
2) Chronologically: ideas are arranged based on sequence of steps in a specific order
3) Spatially (classifying things into categories or steps): when each idea has a specific location or direction, it can focus on different parts of a building, organization, machine… and can examine different regions of a city, nation, continent…
4) Cause-Effect: ideas that show relationship between certain factors and certain results
○ From cause to effect, or from effect to cause
5) Problem-Solution: a relationship between something that is wrong and it can be corrected
○ From problem to solution, or from solution to problem
6) Comparison-Contrast: acknowledging cultural differences in organization.

42
Q

How to organize supporting material?

A

1) By primacy: give the most powerful support first
2) By recency: save the strongest support for last
3) By specificity: give more detailed support first or at the end
4) By complexity: begin with simple support
5) By “soft” & “hard” evidence: begin with opinion & interferes. End with facts & statistics.

43
Q

What are signposts?

A

Cues about the relationships between speaker’s ideas.

44
Q

Types of signposts:

A

1) Transitions: indicates changes
2) Preview: a statement that indicates what comes next
3) Summaries: review of what was said

45
Q

Types of transitions:

A

▪ Verbal: first, next, therefore…
▪ Nonverbal: walk to another location, change in pitch, pause…

46
Q

Types of previews:

A

1) Initial preview: a statement in the introduction of a speech of what the main ideas of the speech will be
2) Internal preview: a statement in the body of a speech that introduces & outlines ideas that will be developed as the speech progresses.

47
Q

Types of summaries:

A

▪ Final summaries: review all points
▪ Internal summaries: review portions inside body, before the conclusion. It is preceded by “thus, therefore…”
▪ Initial summary: after the introduction

48
Q

Purposes of the introduction:

A

1) Grabbing the audience’s attention: using an illustration (story/real-life example), facts, statistics, quotation, humor,
rhetorical question, historical/recent events, personal reference, referring to the occasion or to a previous speech.
2) Introducing the topic/the subject (the central idea) in a complete statement
3) Establishing credibility (not in all introductions)
4) Previewing main ideas (signposted previews are better)

49
Q

Purposes of a conclusion:

A
  • Summarizing the speech (restating the main ideas, or reminding listeners of the central theme)
  • Providing a closure (an opinion, a new horizon, a suggestion)
50
Q

Strategies to enhance audience understanding

A
  • Speak with clarity
  • Appeal to adult learning:
  • Clarify complex processes
  • Use effective visual reinforcement
51
Q

Difference between pedagogy and andragogy

A

▪ Pedagogy: teaching children
▪ Andragogy: teaching adults

52
Q

Difference between denotation and connotation:

A

Denotation: the dictionary/literal meaning.
Connotation: the personal/hidden meaning

53
Q

Figures of speech:

A

1) Metaphor: an implied comparison (without using “like” or “as”), helps to understand an abstract concept by comparing it
to something more concrete.
2) Simile: a direct comparison with “like” or “as”.
3) Crisis rhetoric: language used by speakers during momentous and overwhelming times.
4) Personification: assigning human qualities to inanimate objects or ideas.

54
Q

Strategies for creating memorable word structures

A

1) Using figurative images
2) Creating drama
3) Creating cadence (rhythmic order)

55
Q

How to create drama in a speech?

A

1) Using short sentences that express vitally an important idea by stating it in a few well-chosen
2) Omission: boils an idea down to its essence by leaving out understood phrases or words.
3) Inversion: reverses normal word order.
4) Suspension: place a key word or phrase at the end of a sentence.

56
Q

How to create cadence during a speech?

A

1) Repetition: using the same words to emphasize.
2) Parallelism: using 3 or more words/phrases/sentences/clauses of the same grammatical structure.
3) Antithesis: using opposite/contrasting meanings in a parallel structure.
4) Alliteration: repetition of constant sounds at the beginning of words.

57
Q

Strategies for the final delivery

A

1) Nonverbal communication: communication other than written or spoken language that creates meaning.
2) Audience-centered delivery
3) Nonverbal expectancy theory

58
Q

What is the nonverbal expectancy theory

A

A theory that suggests that if listeners’ expectations about how communication should be expressed are violated, listeners will feel less favorable toward the communicator of the message.

59
Q

Methods of delivery

A

1) Manuscript speaking: reading a speech from a written text.
2) Memorized speaking: giving a speech from memory without using notes.
3) Impromptu speaking: delivering a speech without preparing in advance.
4) Extemporaneous speaking: knowing the major ideas, which have been outlined, but not memorizing the exact wording

60
Q

What is persuasion?

A

The process of changing or reinforcing attitudes, beliefs, values, or behavior

61
Q

What are the predispositions of persuasion and what are their degree of changability?

A

Attitudes: represent likes and/or dislikes.
- Beliefs: perceptions of what we understand to be true or false.
- Values: enduring concept of right or wrong, good or bad.
- Behavior: what we do or don not do.
Values are at the core of the model because they are the most stable, the most deeply ingrained. Beliefs can be changed, though not as easily as attitudes.

62
Q

True or false? Persuasive messages often attempt to do more than change or reinforce
attitudes, beliefs, or values—they may attempt to change or strengthen behaviors.

A

True

63
Q

What are the persuasive appeals?

A

1) Ethos
2) Logos
3) Pathos
4) Motivational Appeal

64
Q

What is ELM theory?

A

ELM theory describes how audience members interpret persuasive messages. It suggests that there are two ways in which you can be persuaded:
1) The direct persuasion route
2) The indirect/peripheral persuasion route

65
Q

Talk about the direct persuasion route in ELM’s theory

A

When speakers elaborate on a message, they focus on the facts, evidence, and logic. This process, known as elaboration, involves critically evaluating the reasoning and arguments presented, much like Aristotle’s concept of logos. As a result, you make a thoughtful decision about whether to accept or act on the persuader’s message.

66
Q

Talk about the indirect persuasion route in ELM’s theory

A

When speakers do not elaborate, they are swayed by peripheral factors like the messenger’s appearance or delivery rather than the message’s content. Without critical thinking, you rely on an overall impression, making decisions based on intuition rather than logic. This indirect route is a more intuitive and less thoughtful process of persuasion.

67
Q

How to motivate listeners?

A

1) Cognitive Dissonance
2) Consider listener’s needs
3) Use positive motivation
▫ Emphasize positive values
▫ Emphasize benefits, not just features
4) Use negative motivation
▫ Use an “if” then approach
▫ Threaten listeners’ loved ones
▫ Emphasize your credibility
▫ Make the treat real
▫ Make the threat scary
▫ Provide a solution to the fear-
inducing problem
▫ Empower your listeners to act
5) Repetition

68
Q

How to develop your persuasive speech?

A
  • Consider audience variety
  • Remember your ethical responsibilities as a persuader
  • Select & narrow your persuasive topic
  • Determine your persuasive purpose
  • Develop your central & main ideas (Proposition of fact, proposition of value, or proposition of policy)
  • Gathering supporting material
  • Organize your persuasive speech
  • Rehearse & deliver your speech
69
Q

Steps in persuasive communication

A

1) Establish credibility
2) Enhance your credibility
3) Use logic and evidence
4) Use reasoning
5) Use emotions( in persuasion, can make people feel pleasure or displeasure, more aroused, and dominance)

70
Q

How to establish credibility in persuasion?

A

Using the audience’s perceptions of the speaker, it can be taken in various dimensions:
▫ Competence- knowledge & skill.
▫ Trustworthiness- believability & honesty.
▫ Dynamism- energy level.
▫ Charisma- charm, talent & magnetism.

71
Q

Credibility is established in 3 places:

A
  • Initial credibility: perceptions before speech
  • Derived credibility: impressions formed during speech
  • Terminal credibility: final impressions, after speech
72
Q

Ways to boost credibility:

A
  • Well-stressed values and concerns shared with audience.
  • Well-documented evidence.
  • Well-organized ideas.
  • Well-managed delivery
73
Q

How to use logic and evidence to persuade:

A

Using:
- Logos: formal system of rules to reach a conclusion
- Aristotle: always prove what you state
- Reasoning: drawing a conclusion from the evidence

74
Q

Types of reasoning:

A

1) Inductive: Using specific examples to reach a general conclusion.
2) Deductive: Conclusion (generalization) is more certain than probable. Start with general claim then move towards specific conclusion illustrating general claim.
3) Causal: causes that lead to the result. It can move from causes to effect or vice versa.

75
Q

True or False? Reasoning by analogy is a special type of inductive reasoning

A

True

76
Q

Structures of deductive reasoning

A

Syllogism:
□ Major premise (general
statement)
□ Minor premise (specific
statement that applies to the
major premise)
□ Conclusion (logical outcome,
minor premise exemplifies
major premise)
The more valid the major premise, the more valid the deduction. To test its validity, we should ask if the major premise or the minor premise is true.

77
Q

Strategies for organizational patterns in persuasive messages:

A
  • Problem-solution
  • Refutation
  • Cause-effect
  • Motivated sequence (attention, need, satisfaction, visualization, action)

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