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AP Psych > Final review > Flashcards

Final review Flashcards

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1
Q

biological

A

-physiological explanations (genetics, hormones, and neurotransmitters) are main causes of thoughts and behaviors

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2
Q

behavioral

A

-environment (tabula rasa)
punishment/reinforcement, conditioning
-observable behavior and stimuli (not internal processes)

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3
Q

humanistic

A
  • free will & individual choice

- focuses on hierarchy of needs to reach self actualization

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4
Q

cognitive

A
  • thoughts, memories, and mental processes

- behavior is a result of how people perceive and interpret experiences

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5
Q

psychoanalytic

A

-unconscious mind, early childhood experiences

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6
Q

Experiments: definition

A

Manipulates one or more independent variables to determine the effects of said IV on DV.

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7
Q

Experiments: +

A

(1) can determine cause and effect (2) can be retested and proven

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8
Q

Experiments: -

A

(1) potential ethical issues (2) artificial environment creates low realism (people know they are being researched, which could impact what they say and do) - Hawthorne Effect

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9
Q

Correlational studies: definition

A

Involves looking at the relationships between two or more variables, used when performing an experiment is not possible.

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10
Q

Correlational studies: +

A

(1) easier to conduct than an experiment (2) can be used when an experiment is impossible.

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11
Q

Correlational studies: -

A

cannot determine cause and effect

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12
Q

Survey: definition

A

The collection of information reported by people about a particular topic.

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13
Q

Survey: +

A

(1) cost effective (2) mostly reliable (3) easy to make, distribute, analyze

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14
Q

Survey: -

A

(1) low response rates (2) can’t verify the accuracy of an individual’s response (misinterpretation of questions, framing bias) (3) no causality (4) shallow info (breadth not depth)

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15
Q

Case study: definition

A

in-depth study of an individual or a small group. Usually, case studies are done on people with rare circumstances.

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16
Q

Case study: +

A

provides detailed information

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17
Q

Case study: -

A

(1) cannot generalize results to a wider population - depth, not breadth (2) difficult to replicate, no causality (3) time-consuming

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18
Q

Correlation

A

-correlation coefficient ranges from -1 to +1. The closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the correlation.
0<p></p>

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19
Q

Bell curve: standard deviation

A
  • 68% of the data falls within one standard deviation about the mean
  • 95% of the data falls within 2 σ of mean
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20
Q

Clinical psychologists

A

assess, diagnose, and treat mental, emotional, and behavioral disorders

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21
Q

Organizational psychologists

A

help businesses select and train employees , boost morale and productivity

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22
Q

dopamine

A

pain control and pleasure

  • when you’re “doped up,” you’re happier & have less pain
    low: Parkinson’s disease (small dopey parks the car)
    high: Schizophrenia (tall dopey is skiing)
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23
Q

norepinephrine

A

alertness and arousal (epipen)

low: depression

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24
Q

serotonin

A
  • mood, hunger, sleep

low: depression (sir rotten is in a rotten mood

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25
Q

GABA

A

-major inhibitory neurotransmitter, reduces neural activity

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26
Q

acetylcholine

A

muscle action, learning, memory
an Ace of cards flexing their muscles
low: Alzheimer’s

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27
Q

somatic nervous system

A

part of PNS that controls voluntary movements of skeletal muscles

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28
Q

autonomic nervous system

A

part of PNS that controls involuntary functions of internal organs and glands
-i.e. breathing, heart rate, digestion

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29
Q

sympathetic nervous system

A

fight or flight

  • sympathetic to the fact that you’re about to die
  • pupils dilating, inhibits digestion, increases breathing and heart rate
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30
Q

parasympathetic nervous system

A

rest and digest

  • parachute that calms you down
  • lowers heart rate and breathing
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31
Q

medulla

A
  • hindbrain

- “medulla does the dull stuff”: breathing, heart rate, reflexes

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32
Q

pons

A

-hindbrain
“sleeping on a pond”
sleep & wakefulness

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33
Q

cerebellum

A

-hindbrain
“Sara running around ringing a bell”
-muscle coordination

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34
Q

reticular formation

A
  • midbrain

- oversees arousal and attentional processes

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35
Q

thalamus

A

-forebrain
“relay partner named Thal”
-primary relay station for sensory info (except smell)

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36
Q

hypothalamus

A

controls pituitary gland and 4 F’s (feeding, fornication, fight, flight)
-forebrain

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37
Q

amygdala

A

“emotional amy”

  • emotions, mainly fear
  • forebrain
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38
Q

hippocampus

A

“hippo on campus bragging about their memory”

  • forebrain
  • memory
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39
Q

cerebral cortex

A

-lobes of brain (wrinkly parts)

“man named Tex taking off their hat”

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40
Q

limbic system

A

hypothalamus, hippocampus, amygdala

memory and emotion

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41
Q

corpus callosum

A

nerve fiber that connects the two hemispheres of the brain

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42
Q

pituitary gland

A

-controls growth and releases hormones to regulate bodily functions and maintain homeostasis

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43
Q

occipital lobe

A

vision

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44
Q

temporal lobe

A

right by the temple (ears)

  • hearing and balance
  • memory
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45
Q

parietal lobe

A
  • sensory input

- somatosensory cortex registers touch and movement

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46
Q

frontal lobe

A
  • speaking, planning, judgment, problem-solving

- motor cortex controls voluntary movements

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47
Q

lobe positioning

A

flower POT

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48
Q

ways to study brain

A
  • EEG: measures brain waves through electrical activity

- lesioning: destroy/stimulate certain parts of the brain to change behavior

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49
Q

brain imaging techniques

A
  • PET scan: maps brain activity using dye with radioactive tracers that is injected into the patient’s body
  • CT scan: use -ray photographs to map brain structure
  • MRI: uses magnetic fields and radio waves
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50
Q

plasticity

A

-ability of the brain to reorganize itself, change neural connections, and compensate for lost functionality (i.e. deaf people have superior visual perception)

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51
Q

neurogenesis

A

growth and formation of new neurons

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52
Q

sleep waves

A

BATSD

  • beta waves: awake
  • alpha waves: drowsy
  • theta waves: stage 1 of sleep
  • sleep spindles - stage 2 of sleep with K complexes
  • delta waves - stage 3 of sleep
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53
Q

sleep disorders

A
  • sleep apnea: stop breathing when sleeping
  • narcolepsy - inability to stay awake, drowsiness (dog)
  • insomnia - inability to fall/stay asleep
  • sleep paralysis: inability to move
  • night terrors - during non-REM sleep (nightmares during REM sleep)
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54
Q

dream theories

A
  • WISH FULFULLIMENT: (Freud) dreams have manifest (remembered storyline) and latent contents (underlying meaning)
    • i.e. being chased by an animal🐆 in a dream may actually mean we are worried about a deadline creeping up on us
  • dreams satisfy our wishes and deal with unconscious drives
  • INFORMATION PROCESSING: dreams allow us to process the day’s activities
  • ACTIVATION SYNTHESIS HYPOTHESIS: dreams are just ways to make sense of random neural activity from the brainstem as memories are synthesized
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55
Q

sleep cycles

A
  • repeat every 90 minutes, increase as the night moves on (1-2-3-2-1-REM)
  • 25% is REM sleep
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56
Q

biological rhythms

A
  • yearly, 28-day (menstrual), 90-day

- 24-hour circadian rhythm controls temperature and wakefulness

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57
Q

stimulants

A

drugs that excite CNS activity and speed up drug functions (i.e. meth, caffeine, nicotine, cocaine)

  • cause rush of energy and mood followed by crash
  • amphetamines speed up nervous system
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58
Q

opiates

A

painkillers (i.e. heroin, oxycontin, morphine) that depress neural activity and stop production of endorphins

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59
Q

depressants

A

drugs that decrease CNS activity and body functions (i.e. alcohol, valium, xanax)

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60
Q

hallucinogens

A

drugs that change perception and self-awareness (LSD, PCP, marijuana)

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61
Q

inhalants

A

drugs that restrict blood to the brain

62
Q

semantic memory

A

explicit LTM of facts, ideas, and concepts

i.e. who won the 2004 Olympics in figure skating

63
Q

procedural memory

A

implicit LTM of motor and cognitive skills

i.e. muscle memory, how to pick up a fork

64
Q

implicit memory

A

non-declarative LTM that is remembered unconsciously

65
Q

explicit memory

A

declarative LTM that requires conscious recall of facts or personal experiences

66
Q

iconic memory

A

sensory memory of visual stimuli (half a second)

67
Q

echoic memory

A

sensory memory of sound (4 seconds)

68
Q

sensory memory

A

holds sensory information from the five senses just long enough to recognize relevant bits of info and transfer to STM
-large capacity, few seconds duration

69
Q

STM

A

temporarily holds info for analysis until it is sent to LTM or lost

  • retained through maintenance rehearsal (duration) and chunking (capacity)
  • capacity: 5-9 items, 30 seconds duration
70
Q

flashbulb memory

A

clear memory of an emotionally significant event (i.e. 9/11)

71
Q

LTM

A

stores info for large periods of time

  • explicit and implicit
  • virtually limitless capacity w/ relatively permanent duration
  • maintained through
72
Q

encoding

A

processing info into the memory system

durability: visual

73
Q

maintenance rehearsal

A
  • process of repeatedly thinking about or verbalizing a certain piece of information
  • increases duration of STM
  • i.e. repeating a phone number in your head
74
Q

elaborative rehearsal

A

linking new info to previously stored material

-helps maintain info in LTM

75
Q

storage

A

retaining info over time in STM, LTM, or sensory memory

76
Q

retrieval

A

recovering info from memory

77
Q

recall

A

retrieval process of bringing info from stored memories w/ general, nonspecific cues (i.e. FRQ)

78
Q

recognition

A

retrieval process of identifying previously learned info (i.e. MCQ)

79
Q

proactive interference

A

old information interferes with recall of the new

-ie. can’t remember new password

80
Q

serial position effect

A

people tend to remember info in a list that is mentioned first or last, not in the middle

81
Q

recency effect

A

remembering the last thing said

82
Q

primacy effect

A

remembering the first thing that was said

83
Q

retroactive interference

A

new information interferes with recall of the old

i.e. not being able to remember old classmate’s names

84
Q

syntax

A

ordering of words to create sentences

85
Q

semantics

A

understanding the meaning of words

86
Q

phonemes

A

basic unit of sound in a language (i.e. English has 40 phonemes)

87
Q

morpheme

A

basic unit of sound with meaning (i.e. pro)

88
Q

overgeneralization

A

applying grammar rules when they aren’t appropriate (i.e. I goed to the park)

89
Q

overextension

A

using a term to reference more things that it actually does (i.e. calling all animals doggie)

90
Q

algorithms

A

step-by-step procedure that guarantees a solution

-looking for siracha by systematically checking every aisle

91
Q

heuristic

A

rule of thumb mental shortcut to solve problems

  • more error-prone than algorithm, but potentially faster
    i. e. looking for siracha by first going to the asian condiments section
92
Q

insight

A

light bulb moment

-sudden understanding of a problem that implies solution (i.e. monkeys stacking boxes to get banana)

93
Q

functional fixedness

A

tendency to only think of objects working in a particular way
-i.e. a water bottle can only be filled with water to drink, not used as a dumbell

94
Q

mental set

A

tendency to only see solutions/follow strategies that have worked in the past
-keep on restarting computer to try to fix internet connection

95
Q

availability heuristic

A

judging the likelihood/probability of an event based on how easily you can recall immediate examples from the mind about something
-i.e. parents may not let their children walk to school 🏫 because the only thing they could think of is that one kid going missing, casinos with ringing bells and flashing lights when you win

96
Q

representative heuristic

A

estimate probability of an event based on how well the circumstances match our previous prototype
-thinking a well-dressed preppy student goes to Harvard rather than a truck driver

97
Q

reliability

A

the measure of the consistency and reproducability of a test (i.e. if darts are all clustered together)

98
Q

validity

A

extent to which tests measure what they’re designed to measure (i.e. if darts are centered around the bullseye)

99
Q

criterion validity

A
  • how well the test correlates with the outcome
    i. e. if a student scored high on a running test but can’t run a mile without passing out, the test has low criterion validity
100
Q

predictive validity

A

accuracy with which test scores measure future performance

i.e. MCAT&raquo_space; Step 1

101
Q

content validity

A

when the test has relevant and pertinent elements that are representative of the construct
i.e. if the ap psych test only asked about world history, it would have low content validity

102
Q

construct validity

A

the degree to which the test accurately measures what it was designed to measure
-accuracy with which test scores correlate with scores on other tests (i.e. ACT and SAT)

103
Q

test-retest method

A

way to measure reliability in which participants’ scores on two separate administrations of the same test are compared

104
Q

split-half method

A

splitting a test into two equivalent parts (i.e. odd and even) and determining the degree of similarity in scores between the two halves

105
Q

Gardner: multiple intelligences

A

theory of multiple intelligences (Logical/Mathematical, Linguistic, Musical, Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Naturalistic, Interpersonal, and Intrapersonal)

106
Q

Sternberg theory on intelligence

A

Triarchic theory breaks intelligence into three categories: creative (solve problems with novel solutions), practical (“common sense”), analytical (analyze a problem into its integral components)

107
Q

Binet intelligence testing

A

Binet Simon Test

  • coined “mental age”
  • mental age/chronological age *100=IQ (ratio-based)
  • ratio-based
108
Q

Terman

A
  • created Stanford-Binet Test
  • compared a child’s score against sample distribution of IQ scores in the same age range
  • deviation based
109
Q

Wechsler

A

developed Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) and Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children (WISC)

  • 15 subtests
  • general score w/ verbal and performance subtest scores
110
Q

operant conditioning

A

learning through consequences of voluntary behavior

111
Q

classical conditioning

A

learning through pairing previously neutral stimuli with UCS to elicit a CR

112
Q

observational learning

A
  • learning new behaviors or info by watching/imitating others
  • requires attention, retention, reproduction, and reinforcement
113
Q

UCS

A

unconditioned stimulus that elicits the UCR (innate) w/o conditioning
- i.e. meat

114
Q

UCR

A

unconditioned response that results from UCS without conditioning (innate)
- i.e. salivating at meat

115
Q

CS

A

conditioned stimulus - previously neutral stimulus that after repeatedly pairing with UCS to elicit UCR, now elicits the CR
- i.e. bell

116
Q

CR

A

conditioned response - learned reaction to CS due to repeated pairings between CS and UCS
- ie. salivating at the bell

117
Q

generalization

A

when stimuli similar to the CS elicits the CR

-i.e. Little Albert is scared of santa claus

118
Q

discrimination

A

when only the specific CS elicits the CR

-i.e. little albert is only scared of white mice

119
Q

extinction

A

occurs when CS is repeatedly given without UCS, which gradually weakens the CR

120
Q

acquisition

A

initial stage of classical conditioning when NS is paired with UCS to elicit UCR so that the NS eventually elicits CR

121
Q

spontaneous recovery

A

sudden reappearance of extinguished CR after extinction

122
Q

shaping

A

reinforcement delivered for successive approximations of the desired response
-i.e. if I want Peanut to spin, first give carrots when she turns 90 degrees, then 180 degrees and so on until she can do a full turn

123
Q

latent learning

A

hidden learning that exists w/o behavioral signs (i.e. rats in Tolman’s maze experiment)

124
Q

reinforcement

A

strengthens a response and increases behavior

  • positive: desirable reward (i.e. candy for A+)
  • negative: taking away averse stimuli (seatbelt noise)
125
Q

punishment

A

weakens a response and makes it less likely to occur

  • positive: averse consequence (i.e. getting spanked for cursing)
  • negative: take away desirable stimuli (i.e. no phone if you get a B)
126
Q

schedules of reinforcement: VR

A

reinforcement occurs after varied number of responses

i.e. slot machine

127
Q

schedules of reinforcement: VI

A

reinforcement occurs after varied amount of time

i.e. pop quiz

128
Q

schedules of reinforcement: FR

A

reinforcement occurs after predetermined number of responses

i.e. you get a prize for every 10 books you read

129
Q

schedules of reinforcement: FI

A

reinforcement occurs after a predetermined amount of time

i.e. you get a paycheck every month

130
Q

absolute threshold

A

minimum level at which a stimulus is detectable 50% of the time

131
Q

difference threshold

A

minimum difference needed to note a stimulus difference (JND)

132
Q

Weber’s law

A

difference threshold is proportional to the strength of stimuli
weight: 5%

133
Q

pathway of light to the brain

A
  1. First, light passes through the cornea, a thin tissue that protects the eye and bends light to provide focus.
  2. Next, light passes through the pupil, a small opening controlled by the iris. The iris is a colored muscle that constricts or dilates based on light intensity.
  3. Behind the pupil is the lens. It focuses incoming light onto the retina as an upside-down image and changes the shape of light. This is called accommodation.
  4. Once the image is received on the retina, visual information begins to be processed. At the retina’s receptor, cells convert light into neural impulses that travel to the brain via the optic nerve.
    - Rods are photoreceptors that detect black, white, and gray. Cones are photoreceptors that detect color
  5. The fovea is responsible for the sharpest vision (dense with cones).
  6. Note: Where the optic nerve leaves the eye is a blind spot, as a result of the absence of receptor cells there. After exiting the eye, neural messages travel along the optic nerve to the brain for further processing.
134
Q

Gustation

A

five main taste receptors: sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami

  • essential to ancestor’s survival
    receptors: taste buds
  • influenced by texture, temperature, health, smell, sight
135
Q

Olfaction

A

receptors: olfactory cilia on roof of nasal passage

- only sense that isn’t processed by thalamus; strongly connected to memories

136
Q

pathway of sound to brain

A
  1. The outer ear, which is often called the pinna, is the first part of the ear that the sound waves reach.
  2. Then, a mechanical chain reaction sends the sound waves down through the outer ear to the eardrum. The eardrum is a tight membrane, and when sound waves hit it, it vibrates.
  3. Right after hitting the eardrum, three bones in the middle ear (hammer, anvil, stirrup) pick up the vibrations.
  4. Vibrations from the middle ear cause the oval window (cochlea’s membrane) to vibrate, pushing the fluid inside the cochlea.
  5. In the cochlea is the basilar membrane lined with hair cells that are bent by vibrations.
  6. The hair movement triggers impulses in nearby nerve cells that form the auditory nerve.
137
Q

Gestalt principles: proximity

A

nearby objects are grouped together

i.e. uniever logo

138
Q

Gestalt principles: similarity

A

objects that are similar are grouped together (i.e. peacock feathers in NBC logo)

139
Q

Gestalt principles: closure

A

the tendency to fill in gaps to form a whole object (triangle in three circles)

140
Q

Gestalt principles: continuity

A

we perceive continuous patterns rather than discontinuous ones

141
Q

Gestalt principles: figure and ground

A

figure is the subject, ground is the background

i.e. vase and two faces; figure and ground are interchangeable

142
Q

Monocular Cues: motion parallax

A

when we are moving, closer objects appear to whiz past quickly but farther objects seem to travel slowly

143
Q

Monocular Cues: linear perspective

A

parallel lines seem to converge as they recede into the distance

144
Q

Monocular Cues: interposition

A

when objects overlap each other, the object at the very top is perceived to be closer

145
Q

Monocular Cues: relative size

A

close objects are larger than farther objects

146
Q

Monocular Cues: texture gradient

A

nearby objects have a more distinct texture than farther objects (i.e. Bob ross painting)

147
Q

Monocular Cues: relative height

A

objects positioned higher in our field of vision are perceived as farther away (i.e. taj mahal picture)

148
Q

Binocular Cues: convergence

A

degree to which the two eyes must converge to focus on the object
-closer objects» more convergence

149
Q

Monocular Cues: retinal disparity

A

separation of the eyes cause different images to fall on each retina

150
Q

Monocular Cues: light and shadow

A

brighter objects are perceived to be closer than darker objects

AP Psych (1 decks)

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