Final Review Flashcards
(75 cards)
1
Q
Provide an example of what is meant by studying acute responses to a single bout of
exercise.
A
- instantaneous
- what immediately happens when you begin your work out
- ex. increased cardiac output
- ex. decreased blood flow to visceral organs
2
Q
Describe what is meant by studying chronic adaptations to exercise training.
A
- long term effects
- ex. muscular walls in the heart enlarge
- ex. increased respiratory capacity
- ex. improved body composition
3
Q
What factors must you consider when designing a research study to ensure that you get accurate and reproducible results?
A
- feasibility
- easily reproducible data collection technique
- specific procedure
- clear population
- budget friendly
- manpower availability
4
Q
Define the term ergometer
A
- an apparatus that measures work or energy expended during a period of physical exercise .
5
Q
Explain the function of an ergometer.
A
.- evaluate the fitness level of the athlete
- measuring work done by exercising
6
Q
Advantages of using cycle ergometers for exercise testing in clinical and research settings:
A
- portable
- less expensive
- minimal upper body movement (easier to measure HR and BP)
- more applicable for measuring cycling performance
- occupies less space
7
Q
Disadvantages of using cycle ergometers for exercise testing in clinical and research settings:
A
- people may not be accustomed to cycling (premature fatigue, fail to reach true max cardio output, 10-15% underestimation of VO2 max)
- BP slightly higher than treadmill tests (due to longer muscle contractions)
- Accuracy is based on prediction of MHR
- equipment must be well maintained/calibrated
8
Q
Advantages of using treadmills for exercise testing in clinical and research settings:
A
- higher cardiovascular responses
- exercise is controlled by observer (speed), yields more reproducible data
- breathing is easier
9
Q
Disadvantages of using treadmills for exercise testing in clinical and research settings:
A
- need space
- need money for treadmill
- upper body movement
- may not be an option if you are obese or have musculoskeletal issues or injuries
- needs maintenance
- can be loud
10
Q
Explain the placebo effect.
A
- a beneficial effect
- produced by a placebo drug or treatment, that cannot be attributed to the properties of the placebo itself
- due to the patient’s belief in the treatment
11
Q
Describe 2 research design methods of controlling for placebo effects.
A
- blinded trials: subjects do not know whether or not they are receiving real or placebo treatment
- having a natural history group: receive no treatment
12
Q
Describe additional factors, other than placebo effect, that can introduce unwanted
variation into research results and thus need to be controlled.
A
- random error (chance)
- systematic error (bias)
- measurement error (reliability and validity)
- misclassification (information bias)
- sampling error
- observer and instrument variation
- absent or inappropriate reference standard
- limited amount of evidence
13
Q
Once an action potential reaches the axon terminals of an ______, it is ready to
trigger a muscle contraction
A
α-motor neuron
14
Q
Describe all the steps of muscle contraction, starting at the axon terminals and ending with muscle relaxation.
A
- AP starts in brain
- AP arrives at axon terminal, releases ACh
- ACh crosses synapse, binds to ACh receptors on plasmalemma
- AP travels down plasmalemma, T-tubules
- triggers Ca 2+ release from SR
- Ca 2+ enables actin-myosin contraction
- AP ends, electrical stimulation of SR stops
- Ca2+ pumped back into SR
- without Ca2+, trooping and tropomyosin return to resting conformation
15
Q
Describe the key structural and functional differences in the three major muscle fiber
types.
A
.- Type I peak tension in 110 ms 50% of fibres Slower myosin ATPase = slower contraction cycling Smaller neuron < fibres - Type II Peak tension in 50 ms (fast twitch). 25% of fibres each. Fast myosin ATPase = fast contraction cycling More highly developed SR Faster Ca2+ release Larger neuron >300 fibres
- different types of myosin
16
Q
How do the differences in the 3 major muscle fibre types result in different exercise capabilities?
A
Type I - high aerobic endurance - low intensity aerobic exercise, daily activities Type IIa - more force, faster fatigue than type I - short, high intensity endurance events Type IIx - seldom used for everyday activities - short, explosive sprints
17
Q
Describe the different methods that muscles use to increase the force of contraction.
A
- more force production: more or larger motor units (Type II)
- length-tension relationship (optimal sarcomere length)
- speed-force relationship (concentric: maximal force development decreases at higher speeds) (eccentric: maximal force development increases at higher speeds)
18
Q
How much energy does a gram of each 3 major energy substrates yield?
A
- carb: 4.1 kcal/g
- fat: 9.4 kcal/g
- protein: 4.1 kcal/g
19
Q
How are each 3 major energy substrates stored?
A
Carbs
- all converted to glucose
- 2500 kcal stored in body
- extra glucose stored as glycogen in liver, muscles
Fat
- +70,000 kcal stored in body
- must be broken down into free fatty acids and glycerol
Protein
- must be converted into glucose
- can also convert into FFAs (energy storage)
20
Q
When are each 3 major energy substrates preferentially used?
A
- carb: immediate
- fat: prolonged, less intense exercise
- protein: during starvation
21
Q
Site of production for each of 3 metabolic pathways the body uses to generate ATP:
A
ATP-PCR system ? Glycolytic System - all steps occur in cytoplasm Oxidative System - occurs in mitochondria
22
Q
ATP yield for each of 3 metabolic pathways the body uses to generate ATP:
A
ATP-PCR system - 1 mol ATP/1 mol PCr Glycolytic system - 2-3 mol ATP/1 mol substrate Oxidative System - depends on substrate - 32-33 ATP/1 glucose - 100+ ATP/1 FFA
23
Q
Duration for each of 3 metabolic pathways the body uses to generate ATP:
A
ATP-PCR system - 3 to 15 s Glycolytic System - 15s to 2 min Oxidative System - steady supply for hours
24
Q
Oxygen or substrate requirement for each of 3 metabolic pathways the body uses to generate ATP:
A
ATP-PCR system - phosphocreatine (PCr): ATP recycling Glycolytic System - uses glucose or glycogen Oxidative System - glucose - FFA
25
Corresponding optimal form(s) of exercise for each of 3 metabolic pathways the body uses to generate ATP:
```
ATP-PCr system
- 3-15 s maximal exercise
Glycolytic System
- allows muscle to contract when O2 limited
- short term high intensity exercise
- 2 min maximal exercise
Oxidative System
- long endurance
```
26
Describe the three ways in which lactate can be used as a fuel by the exercising muscle.
- lactate produced in cytoplasm can be taken up by the mitochondria of the same muscle fibre and oxidized
- lactate can be transported via MCP transporters to another cell and oxidized there (lactate shuttle)
- lactate can recirculate back to the liver, reconverted to pyruvate and then to glucose through gluconeogenesis
27
Outline the sequence of events that is thought to contribute to the development of
DOMS.
- high tension in muscle --> structural damage to muscle, cell membrane
- membrane damage disturbs Ca2+ homeostasis in injured fibre (inhibits cellular respiration, activates enzymes that degrade Z disks)
- after few hours, circulating neutrophils
- products of macrophage activity, intracellular contents accumulate (histamine, kinins, K+, stimulate pain in free nerve endings)
- fluid and electrolytes shift into the area creating edema
28
What exercise practices promote the development of DOMS?
- eccentric contracions
29
What exercise
| practices help avoid the development of DOMS?
.- minimize eccentric work early in training
- start with low intensity and gradually increase
- start with high intensity exhaustive training (soreness bad at first, much less later on)
30
Theory behind direct calorimetry:
- substrate metabolism efficiency
- 40% of substrate energy: ATP
- 60% of substrate energy: heat
- heat production increases with energy production
31
Theory behind indirect calorimetry:
estimates total body energy expenditure based on O2 used, CO2 produced
32
How is direct calorimetry measured?
- can be measured in a calorimeter
- water flows through walls
- body temperature increases water temperature
33
How is indirect calorimetry measured?
- measures respiratory gas concentrations
- haldane transformation
- RER
34
Pros of direct calorimetry:
- accurate over time
| - good for resting metabolic measurements
35
Cons of direct calorimetry:
- expensive, slow
- exercise equipment adds extra heat
- sweat creates errors in measurements
- not practical or accurate for exercise
36
Pros of indirect calorimetry:
- CO2 production may not = CO2 exhalation
- RER inaccurate for protein oxidation
- RER near 1.0 may be inaccurate when lactate buildup inc. CO2 exhalation
- gluconeogenesis produces RER <0.70
37
Cons of indirect calorimetry:
- only accurate for steady state oxidative metabolism
38
Maximal oxygen consumption is often described as the most important variable for an exercise physiologist to know. Based on what you have learned about this variable so far, discuss whether you agree with this statement and why.
- best single measurement of aerobic fitness
- not the best predictor of endurance performance
- needs to be relative to body weight
39
How does the process of normal, quiet inhalation differ from that of forced inhalation?
.
40
How does the process of normal, quiet exhalation differ from that of forced exhalation?
.
41
Compare how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported in the blood.
.
42
Changes that occur in HR from rest to max exercise. Why does this occur?
- directly proportional to exercise intensity
- max HR: highest HR achieved in all out effort to volitional fatigue
- steady state HR: point of plateau, optimal HR for meeting circulatory demands at a given sub maximal intensity
43
Changes that occur in SV from rest to max exercise. Why does this occur?
- inc. with inc. intensity up to 40-60% VO2 max
- beyond this S plateaus to exhaustion
- SV during maximal exercise = double standing SV
- SV during maximal exercise only slightly higher than supine SV
- increase in HR = dec. filling time = dec. SV
44
Changes that occur in cardiac output from rest to max exercise. Why does this occur?
- Q = HR x SV
- inc. with inc. intensity, plateaus near VO2 max
- Q max a function of body size and aerobic fitness
45
How does HR, SV, and cardiac output interact with each other to maintain adequate cardiovascular support for exercise?
- Fick principle
- calculation of tissue O2 consumption depends on blood flow, O2 extraction
- VO2 = HR x SV x (a-v)O2 difference
46
Discuss the major factors that contribute to an increase in muscle blood flow during
exercise.
- inc. HR
- inc. SV
- inc. Q
- Inc. BP (MAP)
- redirect inc. blood flow to areas with greater metabolic need
- sympathetic vasoconstriction shunts blood away from less active regions
47
Discuss the five general principles of training and how each of them must be considered when designing an overall training plan.
- overload
- specificity
- reversibility
- periodization
- progression
- variation
48
Advantages of free-weight resistance training:
.
49
Disadvantages of free-weight resistance training:
.
50
Advantages of machine resistance training:
.
51
Disadvantages of machine resistance training:
.
52
When is free weight resistance training appropriate?
.
53
When is machine resistance training appropriate?
.
54
What are the major criteria involved in designing an anaerobic or aerobic interval training program?
.
55
How should each criterion for anaerobic or aerobic interval training program be treated for a sprinter compared to a
long-distance runner?
.
56
Discuss to what extent fiber hypertrophy and fiber hyperplasia contribute to chronic muscle hypertrophy in humans.
.
57
Explain how immobilization and detraining contribute to muscle atrophy.
- immediate and more pronounced muscle loss
| - injury or disease that affects the nerves that connect connective muscle tissue
58
Explain the reasons older adults have decreased muscle mass compared to when they were younger.
- sarcopenia
- physically inactive people can lose as much as 3-5% muscle mass each decade after age 30
- lower concentration of some hormones
- decrease in the ability to turn protein into energy
- not getting enough calories or protein
- reduction in nerve cells responsible for sending signals from the brain to the muscles to start movement
59
After chronic endurance training, how do the adaptations that occur in muscle complement the adaptations that occur in metabolic function, which together help enable aerobic capacity and performance to improve?
.
60
What kinds of muscular adaptations occur after anaerobic training that lead to improved anaerobic performance?
- inc. in type IIa, IIx cross sectional area
- inc. in type I cross sectional area
- dec. % of type I fibres, inc. % of type II
61
Compare and contrast overreaching and overtraining. How are the two approaches and conditions similar? How are they different?
- overreaching is an acute condition that can lead to overtraining (chronic)
- recovery time is different
- overreaching is not necessarily a bad thing
62
What are the red flags that a coach would look for to spot overtraining syndrome in one
of his or her athletes?
- unexplained decrease in performance, function for weeks, months or years
- strength, coordination, capacity
- fatigue
- change in appetite, weight loss
- sleep and mood disturbances
- lack of motivation, vigor, and/or concentration
- depression
63
Treatment for overtraining syndrome:
- reduced intensity of rest (weeks, months)
| - conselling to deal with stress
64
What are the key differences between tapering and detraining?
- brief period = tapering
- longer period = detraining
- reduction in training (volume/intensity) = tapering
- does not result in deconditioning = tapering
- leads to improved performance = tapering
- immobilization = detraining
- significant cardiorespiratory losses = detraining
65
Hallmarks of the 3 major developmental stages that mark human growth and development between birth and adulthood:
.
66
What events and milestones divide one stage from the next for the 3 major developmental stages that mark human growth and development between birth and adulthood?
.
67
Compare the cardiovascular responses to a single bout of submaximal aerobic exercise
between a child and an adult. Why are some variables similar and others different?
- child max HR higher than in adults
| - child max SV lower than in adults
68
Explain how strength gains occur in children engaged in a resistance training program.
strength gains only via neural mechanisms, no hypertrophy
69
Explain how strength gains occur in adolescents in a similar training program.
.neural + hypertrophy
70
Discuss the physiological factors that limit maximal oxygen uptake in older populations.
- dec. VO2 max with age due to dec. Q max
- dec. vital capacity and FEV1
- inc. residual volume
- less air exchanged
- dec. lung and chest wall elasticity
71
Discuss the thermoregulatory risks of exercise that are exacerbated by advancing age. Why are older people more prone to these issues?
- higher risk of death from hyperthermia
- higher core temp.
- metabolic heat gain related to absolute VO2
- heat loss related to relative percent VO2max
- physical training improves skin vasodilation, sweat rate, redistribution of Q
72
Discuss why women (on average) have a different VO max than men. Is it higher or lower? What factors contribute to this difference?
- women's VO2 max < men's VO2 max
- women's lower hemoglobin limits VO2 max
- women's lower cardiac output limits VO2 max (heart size, plasma volume)
- peak lactate concentrations lower in women
73
What factors cause menstrual cycle disruption in female athletes? What are the implications?
- delayed menarche in certain sports (past age 14) due to decreased fat composition
- menstrual dysfunction in lean-physique sports
- secondary amenorrhea (energy deficit, inadequate caloric intake)
74
Discuss the various health complications and health risks that arise from overweight and obesity.
- cardiovascular disease
- type 2 diabetes
- cancer
- liver, gallbladder disease
- osteoarthritis
- sleep apnea
- hypertension
- diabetes
- orthopaedic problems
- increased mortality
75
Discuss the effect of exercise on RMR, TEM, TEA, body composition, and obesity-related health risks.
RMR
- may increase with training
- resistance training of interest (RMR related to FFM)
TEM
- pre and post meal exercise --> inc. TEM
- chronic exercise training --> inconclusive
Fat Mobilization
- FFA mobilization during exercise
- alters body composition
