final review Flashcards
Marcus Tullius Cicero (date, father of, letters, idealogy)
(106-43 BC/BCE), Arpino, Italy
* Father of Skepticism
* Petrarch, an early humanist of the Renaissance, admired Cicero’s works but also noted the evolution of Latin over the centuries.
o The letters between Petrarch and the writings of Cicero symbolize a Renaissance rediscovery of Classical Latin and ideals. This revival emphasized a break from medieval scholasticism, promoting a return to classical rhetoric, civic virtue, and individual agency—key concepts influencing European thought during the Renaissance.
* Considered an important pagan (异教) writer in Christendom, Cicero died defending the Roman constitution, paralleling the martyrdom of Jesus.
* He translated and popularized ideas from skepticism and stoicism, influencing Western philosophical thought.
o Stoicism: virtue, tolerance, and self-control
Everything around us are results from logos, and we don’t have control of what happen around us, but we can adjust our attitudes
Four cardinal virtues: wisdom, temperance, justice, courage
* As a Roman senator and lawyer, Cicero authored significant works on oratory, emphasizing the importance of public speaking and debate (value of free speech and the role of rhetoric) for understanding the world.
o essential to the development of republican ideas
Saint Augustine
(354–430 CE), Roman Africa/Algeria
- Father of puritanism
- Augustine believed that human beings are born with inherited sin (due to the Fall of Adam and Eve) and thus need the grace of God for salvation. This pessimistic view of human nature heavily shaped Protestant theology, especially Calvinism, which emphasizes predestination (宿命论) and moral rigor—later informing Puritan practices.
- Augustine’s influence contributed indirectly to ideas about controlling expression to foster societal moral health—concepts that remain at the heart of debates on free speech vs. censorship today.
- Augustine’s writings, particularly on original sin, grace, and the nature of God, shaped Western Christian theology
Original sin: all humans inherit sin from the disobedience of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden.
Salvation is only possible through the grace of God, not through human effort alone
The idea of grace as a gift became central to both Catholic and Protestant theology, reinforcing the dependence on divine intervention rather than merit.
The Confessions of St. Augustine
- One of the first autobiographies in Western literature.
- Explores themes of sin, grace, and personal spiritual transformation
- Augustine reflects on his own faults and celebrates God’s mercy, setting a pattern for future spiritual autobiographies.
Dante Alighieri (bron and exile)
1265 and Date: 1301
His Masterpiece: The Divine Comedy
Dante Alighieri is one of the most influential poets in European history. His work, especially The Divine Comedy, is considered a literary and philosophical masterpiece that reflects the values, theology, and human struggles of his time. Dante lived during a period of political instability and intellectual transition in Florence, shaping both his personal life and his writings.
Petrarch
1304-1374
Known as the “Father of Humanism”, Petrarch revived interest in classical texts from Ancient Rome and Greece.
* He is credited with initiating the Renaissance through his rediscovery of classical Latin texts.
* Born in Arezzo, Italy, he spent much of his life traveling and held religious positions in the church, although his work focused on secular literature.
* He emphasized individual reflection and the importance of moral philosophy beyond religious constraints.
* His ideas laid the groundwork for Renaissance humanism, encouraging scholars to focus on human potential and reason
* His rediscovery of Cicero’s letters in the 14th century is one of his most significant contributions to reviving classical antiquity.
Cosimo de’ Medici (Date) what did he witness a shift from and his connection to neoplatonism
(1389–1464), Florence
Cosimo’s era witnessed a shift from scholasticism to humanism.
* Scholasticism (medieval philosophy focused on logic, theology, and reconciling faith with reason) was the dominant mode of thought during the Middle Ages.
* Humanism shifted focus to classical texts, emphasizing Greek and Roman philosophy, art, and literature. Humanists promoted the study of the human experience, believing that human reason and creativity could coexist with faith.
- Cosimo funded scholars, artists, and philosophers who were interested in classical antiquity, bringing the ideals of Renaissance humanism to Florence.
- He sponsored thinkers like Marsilio Ficino, who translated Plato’s works into Latin, reviving Platonic philosophy and establishing the Platonic Academy in Florence.
- Libraries and Manuscripts: Cosimo also established one of the first public libraries in Florence, making ancient knowledge available to scholars and helping to rediscover forgotten classical texts.
Council of Florence (
1439
* The Great Schism of 1054 divided Christianity into two branches: the Eastern Orthodox Church (based in Constantinople) and the Roman Catholic Church (based in Rome).
* The Council of Florence was convened in an effort to reconcile theological differences and unite Christianity, especially as the Byzantine Empire faced threats from the Ottoman Turks.
Lorenzo the Magnificent 149-1492
Lorenzo is remembered for being one of the greatest patrons of Renaissance art.
* Artists he Supported:
o Lorenzo’s financial backing and personal relationships with artists helped some of the Renaissance’s most iconic figures rise to prominence:
Michelangelo: Lorenzo discovered Michelangelo at a young age and welcomed him into the Medici household.
Leonardo da Vinci: Although Leonardo did not work exclusively for Lorenzo, he benefited from the vibrant artistic environment Lorenzo nurtured in Florence.
Sandro Botticelli: Lorenzo supported Botticelli, who created works like The Birth of Venus and Primavera under his patronage.
Pico della Mirandola: A philosopher known for his Oration on the Dignity of Man, which reflected Renaissance humanism.
Founding an Academy for Artists and Scholars
* Lorenzo founded an academy in Florence, modeled after Plato’s Academy in Athens. This academy brought together artists, writers, and thinkers, reviving Greek philosophy and spreading the ideas of humanism.
* His court of intellectuals and poets included:
o Marsilio Ficino: A key figure in the revival of Neoplatonism. Ficino translated many of Plato’s works into Latin and blended Christian theology with Platonic philosophy.
o Angelo Poliziano: A poet and scholar who wrote influential works on classical texts and was one of the leading humanists of the time.
Catherine Medici
1519- queen of france brought italian culture –> france renassiance
Donatello
1386–1466), Florence
Donatello was an Italian sculptor from Florence, widely regarded as one of the most influential artists of the Early Renaissance. He revolutionized the field of sculpture by reintroducing naturalism, emotional depth, and classical techniques, setting the stage for later masters like Michelangelo.
Donatello was a pioneer in experimenting with new materials, styles, and techniques, using bronze, marble, and wood to create lifelike figures. His works are celebrated for their emotional realism and psychological insight, traits that distinguished him from the more idealized works of earlier periods.
3. The Symbolism:
o The statue reflects Florentine civic pride, as David was considered a symbol of Florence’s triumph over larger, more powerful enemies, such as Milan.
o The choice of depicting David as nude harks back to classical antiquity, celebrating the human body and expressing Renaissance ideals of beauty, humanism, and individualism.
4. Erotic and Controversial Elements:
o Donatello’s David has long intrigued art historians due to its subtle sensuality. The delicate pose, soft smile, and nude form give the statue an erotic quality, which was unusual for religious figures in Renaissance art.
o The feather from Goliath’s helmet, which curls up along David’s inner thigh, has been interpreted by some as an allusion to sensual pleasure, adding complexity to the statue’s meaning.
Edict of Nantes Date
1598, founded by Henry
Neo-Platonism founders
Marsili Ficino (1433-1499)
and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (
Girolamo Savonarola
Girolamo Sav
Girolamo Savonarola was an Italian Dominican friar and preacher known for his intense sermons that condemned the moral corruption of Florence.
He gained both followers and enemies through his harsh attacks on luxury, art, and secular culture during the height of the Renaissance.
Savonarola’s rise and fall illustrate the conflict between the Renaissance humanist ideals and religious puritanism.
The Bonfire of the Vanities (
1497) evil monk burning books
Ignatius of Loyola
1491–1556), Spain
Ignatius of Loyola, born in Azpeitia, Spain, was the founder of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits), a Catholic religious order that became one of the most influential forces in the Counter-Reformation.
Originally a nobleman and soldier, Ignatius underwent a spiritual transformation after being injured in battle, leading him to dedicate his life to serving God and reforming the Church.
Early Life and Transformation
* Ignatius was born into a noble family in the Basque region of Spain. He pursued a military career and lived a life of chivalry, adventure, and ambition.
* In 1521, while defending the fortress of Pamplona, Ignatius was severely injured by a cannonball. During his long recovery, he read religious texts about the lives of Christ and the saints, which inspired a spiritual awakening.
* After his recovery, Ignatius renounced his former life and embarked on a pilgrimage to Montserrat and Manresa, where he began to develop the ideas that would form the foundation of the Jesuit order.
The Founding of the Society of Jesus (Jesuits)
* Ignatius studied theology at the University of Paris, where he gathered a group of followers who shared his vision of spiritual renewal and service.
* In 1534, they took vows of poverty, chastity, and obedience and pledged to serve the Church wherever they were needed.
* The Society of Jesus (Jesuits) was officially recognized by Pope Paul III in 1540. From the beginning, the Jesuits were dedicated to education, missionary work, and defending Catholicism against the spread of Protestantism during the Counter-Reformation.
