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PSYCH 1101 Final > Final Review > Flashcards

Final Review Flashcards

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1
Q

What is scientific explanation?

A

careful and systematic observation of natural phenomenon; method for arriving at knowledge about the natural world, describing it accurately, and explaining why things are the way that they are

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2
Q

Problems in the practice of science?(9)

A

1) Underpowered
2) Publication bias; “Failed” studies not published
3) Fraud
4) Implausible Results
5) Failures to Replicate
6) P-hacking
7) Vagues theories, broad conclusion
8) Sloppy observation, measurement, experiment
9) Improper statistical analysis (bad p value / incorrect interpretation)

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3
Q

What is pre-registration? importance?

A

Data analysis plan (how you run/conduct study) posted before they are analyzed
Benefits:
- Distinguishes confirmatory/exploratory analyses
- Reduces p-hacking

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4
Q

What does it mean to say that a study is “underpowered”?

A

Many studies dont collect sufficient observations/not large enough to detect effects

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5
Q

Correlation vs Causation

A

correlation: measure of relatedness of two or more variables

causation: determination that one variable causes—is responsible for—an effect

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6
Q

Falsifiability (and the problem w unfalsifiable theories)

A

ability to disprove
NO WAY TO DISPROVE = UNSCIENTIFIC

  • A theory that can account for nearly every possible observation is not a theory at all.
  • Unfalsifiability came partly from a reliance on unobservable constructs (“ids” and “egos”).
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7
Q

Three dimensions of methods (observation vs experiment/lab vs field/self report vs behavior)

A

Observation = watch natural world, don’t intervene
Experimental = intervene, manipulate variable

Lab = in the lab, control variables
Field = outside, natural

Self report = survey
Behavior = watch behavior

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8
Q

What is P-hacking?

A

Exploiting researcher degrees of freedom to get significant results

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9
Q

Paradox in psych is..?

A

Most published studies are underpowered AND statistically significant

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10
Q

What are Piaget’s 4 stages of development?

A

1) Sensorimotor
0-2 yrs
senses & actions

2) Preoperational
2-7 yrs
language & mental images

3) Concrete operational
7-12 yrs
logical thinking & categories

4) Formal operational
12+ yrs
hypothetical thinking & scientific reasoning

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11
Q

Peripheral vs Central nervous system

A

peripheral:
1) Somatic
- cranial
- spinal
–> process sensory info & control muscle movement
2) Autonomic
- sympathetic
- parasympathetic
–> control muscles & visceral organs

central:
- fore, mid, hindbrain
- mastermind of the body; controlling thoughts, emotions, movements, and senses

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12
Q

Localization vs plasticity

A

plasticity: experience cause reorganize of brain; ability to change, adapt to experience

localization: specific functions –> specific regions of brain

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13
Q

Basic structures of the brain associated with psychological functioning

A

frontal lobe:
-movement
-thinking
-behavior

temporal:
-hearing
-learning
-feeling
-memory

parietal:
-language
-touch

occipital:
-sight

cerebellum:
-balance
-coordination

brain stem:
-breathing, heart rate, temp

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14
Q

7 Kinds of imaging methods

A

1) EEG
2) CAT
3) fMRI
4) TMS
5) PET
6) DOI
7) tDCS

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15
Q

Electromagnetic induction over scalp
*Disrupts neuronal activity in targeted
region (depolarizes or hyper polarizes
neurons)
*(For now) penetration is limited to a
few cm deep, and spatial resolution is
low
*minor side-effects (headaches, scalp
discomfort, rare chance of seizure)

A

Transcranial
Magnetic Stimulation (TMS)

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16
Q

measure of blood flow to areas
of brain (oxygenation)
* decent spatial resolution
* poor temporal resolution (signal
lags)
* expensive, inconvenient

A

Functional Magnetic
Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

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17
Q

measures electrical
activity in the brain
* good temporal resolution
(milliseconds)
*poor spatial resolution
*(fairly) non-intrusive

A

Electroencephalography (EEG)

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18
Q

Structure of a Neuron (axon, dendrite, etc.)

A

pic on docs

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19
Q

6 Primary neurotransmitters and their functions (incl. how certain drugs act by increasing or decreasing these)

A

1) Acetylcholine
*stimulates muscle movement, memory, arousal, attention, mood

2) Dopamine
* a monoamine, produces both
excitatory and inhibitory effects and is involved in several functions,
including learning, attention, and movement
* reinforcement; feeling of
reward
* pleasure & addiction

3) Serotonin
* regulating mood, sleep, impulsivity, aggression, and appetite

4) Norepinephrine/noradrenaline
* eating habits (stimulates intake of carbohydrates) and
alertness and wakefulness, and fight-or-flight (drugs such as beta blockers for anxiety target
norepinephrine)

5) GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)
*main inhibitory neurotransmitter in brain (low GABA linked to generalized anxiety
disorder)

6) Endorphins
*relief from pain or the stress of vigorous exercise and produce feelings of pleasure and well-
being (responsible for pleasure of sex/orgasm, eating appetizing foods, etc.)

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20
Q

Drugs affect neurotransmitters (5)

A
  • Cocaine and amphetamines boost dopamine
  • Redution of dopamine can help schizophrenia
  • Excessive dopamine will get amphetamine psychosis (delusions and hallucinations)
  • Not enough dopamine –> tardive dyskinesia (uncontrollable body movement)
  • Parkinson’s disease can be treated by increasing the level of dopamine
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21
Q

What is neurotransmitter? Excitatory? Inhibitory?

A

Chemical messengers that send signals across neurons
* when sent to a 2nd
neuron…
- makes it more likely for next neuron to fire (excitatory)
*or less likely (inhibitory)

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22
Q

Just Noticeable Difference

A

The smallest difference needed in order to differentiate two stimuli.

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23
Q

Transduction

A

A process in which (physical) energy converts into another (neural) energy.

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24
Q

Binocular vs Monocular Depth cues

A

binocular: binocular disparity & convergence

monocular: motion parallax, ponzo, muller-lyer

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25
Q

Gestalt properties of object perception (6)

A

whole > parts

1) closure
2) proximity
3) symmetry
4) continuity
5) figure-ground
6) common fate
pics on google doc*

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26
Q

The McGurk Effect

A

perceives mismatch b/w sounds & visual movements of mouth; “ba” vs. “va”

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27
Q

The stages of sleep and their associated brain waves

A

Stages of sleep (4):
1) Falling asleep (NREM 1) = theta waves

2) Light sleep (NREM 2) = light sleep, sleep spindles (very high intensity brain waves)

3) NREM 3 , 20-25% of sleep = greater muscle relaxation and delta waves

4) REM
Brain activity = same as wakefulness
Dreams during this stage are vivid

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28
Q

What happens during REM sleep?

A

1) Muscles relaxed
2) Rapid eye movements
3) Dreams

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29
Q

Primary theories as to why we sleep

A

1) Conservation
2) Restoration
3) Memory consolidation/neural synthesis

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30
Q

Common sleep disorders (7)

A

1) Insomnia
* difficulty in falling or staying asleep

2) Sleep Apnea
* a disorder in which the person stops breathing for brief periods
while asleep

3) Narcolepsy
* a disorder in which sudden sleep attacks occur in the middle of
waking activities

4) Sleep Paralysis
* the experience of waking up unable to move

5) Night Terrors
* abrupt awakenings with panic and intense emotional arousal
* It is a non-REM parasomnia, occurring during slow wave sleep

6) Somnambulism (sleep walking)
* Also a non-REM parasomnia (2-14% of children)

7) REM Behavior Disorder (RBD)
* Disorder in which people act out their dreams

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31
Q

Freud’s three part structure of the mind (and how each is described)

A

1) Id (devil) - “dumb,” driven by instinct, present from birth
–does not distinguish between reality and fantasy
–operates according to the pleasure principle

2) Ego (soul) develops out of the id in infancy
–understands reality and logic
–mediator between id and superego

3) Superego (angel)
–internalization of society’s moral standards
–responsible for guilt

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32
Q

Freud’s stages of psychosexual development (and associated ages)

A

Oral Stage (Birth - 1 Year)
* Mouth –> sexual pleasure
* Weaning a child –> fixation if incorrect
* Fixation –> personality characterized by
passivity, gullibility, immaturity, and unrealistic optimism.

Anal Stage (1 - 3 Years)
* Anus –> pleasure
* Toilet training –> fixation if incorrect
* Fixation –> retentive or expulsive behaviors in
adulthood, or a personality characterized by compulsiveness,
such as a person too concerned with neatness and order.
- anal retentive

Phallic Stage (3 - 5 Years)
* genitals –> pleasure
* Oedipus complex (boys) or Electra complex (girls)
occurs
* Fixation –> excessive masculinity in males; need for attention or domination in females (“penis envy”)

Latency Stage (5 - Puberty)
*Sexuality repressed
*Children participate in hobbies, school and same-sex friendships, –> pleasure

Genital Stage (Puberty On)
*Sexual feelings re-emerge & oriented toward others
*Sexuality is consensual & adult, rather than solitary
and infantile
*Healthy adults find pleasure –> love & work
*Fixated adults have their energy tied up in earlier stages

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33
Q

The Stages of Memory

A

Sensory Memory (like a “buffer”)
* Unattended information is quickly lost

Short-term Memory (like RAM)/Working Memory
* Unrehearsed information is quickly lost

Long-term Memory (permanent(ish) storage)
* Information is lost over time

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34
Q

What happens in a dichotic listening task?

A

test w/ 2 messages sent to each ear –> selective attention: repeats 1 of 2 (the one focused on)

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35
Q

What is Inattentive Blindness?

A

brain filters out info it feels is unimportant in moment, causing failure to notice unexpected things in visual field because focus is on something else in that same field of view (balloon in air that passes by, everyone else sees but u)

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36
Q

Primacy/Recency effects

A

initial (first few) and recent (last few) most recalled easily

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37
Q

Encoding Specificity (e.g., context-dependent memory/
Scuba Study)

A
  • study in same room as exam
  • words on land vs water; recalled better where they learned them
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38
Q

3 main types of learning and how they differ from each
other (habituation, classical, operant conditioning)

A
  1. Habituation (non-associative)
    - repeated exposure –> fire station siren get used to
  2. Classical (Pavlovian) Conditioning (associative)
    US –> food
    UR–> salivate
    CS –> bell
    CR –> salivate
  3. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning (associative)
    organisms learn the
    relationships between actions and rewards/punishments

+ reinforcement –> reinforcer increases behavior

  • -reinforcement –> reward by REMOVING bad thing

punishment –> negative consequence to unwanted behavior

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39
Q

What is spontaneous recovery? (Recognize examples)

A

Recovery of an extinguished response that occurs with the passage of time after extinction. Can occur after extinction in either classical or instrumental conditioning. (if reintroduce bell with food again, will recover CR)

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40
Q

What is stimulus generalization?

A

stimuli similar to CS cause CR; dissimilar –> less likely (ex. candy and phone call)

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41
Q

The “Garcia Effect”—what it is and why it was an important demonstration.

A

When You Only Need Once To Learn -
Taste Aversion

Garcia (1955) found rats given sweetened water, then exposed to
radiation (to induce nausea) avoided sweet water after only one trial

important:
- Organisms are biologically prepared to learn this association

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42
Q

What are display rules?

A

informal norms about how to appropriately express emotions in a social group or culture

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43
Q

What are the primary functions of emotions?

A

Motivation to act
* Physiological arousal
* Subjective feeling
* Changes in thought
* Changes in expression (body and face)

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44
Q

What sort of evidence would be needed to argue that something like emotions are universal?(4)

A
  • across wide variety of cultures
  • early in life
  • across species
  • does not require a lot of learning/input
45
Q

Why do researchers think that there is evidence for the universality of
some emotional expressions?

A

lot of agreement, went to isolated place and found same thing without learning

46
Q

What is emotional valuation, and how do values placed on emotional
states differ between cultures (especially Eastern vs Western cultures)?

A

Emotional valuation is the process of extracting emotions from our evaluations of events
- - southerners more violent to insult
- Japanese –> less expressive
AMerican –> more expressive
- Russian value negative emotion

47
Q

Know the basic structure of the prisoners dilemma.

A

two individuals must independently choose between defection (maximizing reward to the SELF) and cooperation (maximizing reward to the GROUP).

48
Q

What is free riding?

A

A situation in which one or more individuals benefit from a common-pool resource without paying their share of the cost.

49
Q

What is diffusion of responsibility?

A

When deciding whether to help a person in need, knowing that there are others who could also provide assistance relieves bystanders of some measure of personal responsibility, reducing the likelihood that bystanders will intervene.

50
Q

Know the basic definition of empathy, and how we know
psychopaths might not have it.

A

The ability to vicariously experience the emotions of another person.

1) reduced skin conductance response (SCR))
2) impaired startle response
3) abnormal conditioned fear response
4) behaviorally inhibited temperament
reduced amygdala volume
5) Dont learn well from mistakes

51
Q

Know the difference between the moral theories of
consequentialism and deontology

A

Consequentialism = a decision is morally correct if and only if it brings about better consequences.

Deontology = a decision is morally correct if it adheres to principles (such as “do not harm innocent people”)

52
Q

Object Permanence

A

The Piagetian task in which infants below about 9 months of age fail to search for an object that is removed from their sight and, if not allowed to search immediately for the object, act as if they do not know that it continues to exist.

53
Q

Conservation problems

A

Problems pioneered by Piaget in which physical transformation of an object or set of objects changes a perceptually salient dimension but not the quantity that is being asked about.

54
Q

Challenges to Piaget’s theory (3)

A
  • neglected role of social & cultural factors
  • underestimated children’s abilities
  • stages of development are not fixed & universal
55
Q

What is bounded rationality?

A

Model of human behavior that suggests that humans try to make rational decisions but are bounded due to cognitive limitations.

56
Q

What are heuristics, and what is their relationship to
biases? (Know anchoring and framing)

A

A mental shortcut or rule of thumb that reduces complex mental problems to more simple rule-based decisions.

Anchoring–>first piece of info recieved

framing–> people react differently to a particular decision depending on how it’s presented/framed

57
Q

What do “system 1” and “system 2” describe?

A

system 1 = Our intuitive decision-making system, which is typically fast, automatic, effortless, implicit, and emotional.

System 2 = Our more deliberative decision-making system, which is slower, conscious, effortful, explicit, and logical.

58
Q

What is the gambler’s fallacy?

A

if event has occurred more frequently than expected –> less likely to happen again in the future (bball player making hoops in a row)

59
Q

tendency to see connectios where there are none & perceive them to be meaningful

A

apophenia

60
Q

perceiving meaningful stimuli in ambiguous images (visual or auditory) (e.g. faces in trees or clouds)

A

pareidolia

61
Q

What is confirmation bias and what is motivated
skepticism?

A

tendency to interpret new evidence as confirmation of one’s existing beliefs or theories

Motivated skepticism = cognitive bias where people apply more skepticism to claims that they don’t like or intuitively disbelieve than to claims that they do like (work hard to disapprove)

62
Q

What does “g” refer to in intelligence theory?

A

singular dimension (one thing) –> “g”; intelligence is general

63
Q

fluid vs crytallized intelligence

A

fluid –> ability to learn and adapt
crytalized: dependent on culture and LEARNING

64
Q

What is the average IQ, and what does the distribution look
like? (e.g., what percent fall into +/- 1 Standard Deviation?)

A

avg: 100
68% wide (34 each)
next is 14% ea side
2% each side
>1% each side

65
Q

What is the Flynn effect, and why wasn’t it obvious for a
while?

A

people tend to outperform the original sample from years ago on which the test was normed; rising IQ.

IQ tests periodically revised + standardized (same test dif generation, took time)

66
Q

How heritable is IQ?

A

coud, but not how much

67
Q

What ways have been shown to improve IQ in children?
(And what ways don’t work?)

A
  • nutrition in breatmilk, reading, preschool, instrument learning in EARLY childhood only
68
Q

Know the big 5 personality traits (OCEAN) and their basic
descriptions

A

O penness to experience (those high on this trait are tolerant, intellectually curious, imaginative, and artistic),

C onscientiousness (those high on this trait are responsible, cautious, organized, disciplined, and achievement-oriented)

E xtraversion (high scorers are friendly, assertive, outgoing, cheerful, and energetic)

A greeableness (high scorers are polite, considerate, cooperative, honest, and trusting)

N euroticism (those high on this trait are prone to feeling sad, worried, anxious, and dissatisfied with themselves)

69
Q

Know what the lexical hypothesis refers to

A

most important differences b/w people will be encoded in the language that we use to describe people.

Therefore, if we want to know which personality traits are most important, we can look to the LANGUAGE that people use to describe themselves and others.

70
Q

Know what valid and reliable means in terms of measurement

A

reliable –> repeated (4 pins in row)

valid –> acceptable (pins not in lane –> invalid)

71
Q

What are the most stable personality traits, and differential
vs absolute stability.

A

Absolute Stability
consistency over TIME
* more extraverted,
agreeable, and conscientious
* less neurotic, less open to experience over lifetime

Differential Stability stability compared to others, RANK-ORDER

Extraversion, Conscientiousness MOST STABLE

72
Q

Projective vs Objective tests

A
  1. Projective Tests
    Strategy: have people interpret ambiguous stimuli as a
    window into their personality
    *Assumption: people will reveal hidden aspects of
    personality such as motives, wishes, and unconscious
    conflicts (inkblot, TAT, house drawing)
    NOT VALID or RELIABLE
  2. Objective Tests
    * Primarily questionnaire measures
    * Big 5 measures both RELIABLE & VALID
    * Stable over many years
    * Predicts real-world behavior
73
Q

Milgram experiment and what it was intended to show

A

people willing to administer shocks to people when ordered authoritatively; less people willing the higher the shock

74
Q

group make decisions MORE EXTREME than individuals

A

group polarization

attitude polarization –> disagreements b/w 2 people becomes more exaggerated after talking

75
Q

Dunning Kruger effect

A

less you know, easier to overestimate how good you are

people with limited competence in a particular domain OVERESTIMATE their abilities

76
Q

The better-than-average effect and some ways it works

A

many people overestimate abilities, believe they do above average work, overconfident (e.g. leadership skills, when will finish assignment)

77
Q

overemphasize peronsality over situation, especially when negative (person did something, they bad not they late for example)

A

fundamental attribution error

78
Q

Explicit vs Implicit attitudes (and how implicit have been measured)

A

Ex: attitude consciously held and can be reported on by the person holding the attitude.

Im: attitude person cannot verbally or overtly state.
measured – IAT

79
Q

Conformity and the Asch Experiment

A

Changing one’s attitude or behavior to match a perceived social norm.

showed how a person’s opinions are affected and changed by the group they are in, even when the group is wrong or the facts are obvious.
– which line is longer, group said obviously wrong answer, so most answered wrong

80
Q

Know the basic theories about humor

A

1) incongruity –> incongruity b/w expected and happens
2) superiority –> better than butt of joke
3) tensions release
4) mock/play aggression* BEST EXPLANATION*

81
Q

Know some of the benefits of laughter(6)

A
  • rewarding; feels good
  • reduces stress
  • decreases muscle tension
  • increases positive immune markers
  • less increase in blood sugar postmeal
  • reduces anger/depression (best medicine)
82
Q

The affective and cognitive components of happiness/how
they are assessed

A

Affective/Emotional: happy these days?

Cognitive: satisfied with life?

83
Q

Which nations are lower/higher in happiness/life satisfaction
and what might be the causes?

A
84
Q

How might you summarize the empirical findings on the relationship between money and happiness?

A

Happiness increases with income but only at lower to middle levels of income, once an individual reaches higher levels of income there are diminishing returns

(extra: spending $ on people makes you happier)

85
Q

What strategies might be used to improve happiness?(9)

A

1) interact w people, even strangers
2) be in moment
3) favor relative over absolute (everyone equal rather than you better or worse)
4) Experiences over stuff
5) Spend $ on others
6) Peaks and Ends (pain better when reduced at end rather than sudden stop)
7) Religion
8) Be grateful
9) act happy/smile

86
Q

What is hedonic adaptation?

A

allows us to return to a baseline level of happiness or satisfaction after experiencing positive or negative events (car crash, paralyzation)
- we’re good adaptors

87
Q

5 Random Interesting Things (At end)

A
  1. What You Believe Changes What You Taste
  2. Blushing Is Likely An Adaptive Signal
  3. Our Musical Tastes Are Set (On Average) At 13 (For Girls) &14 (For Boys)
  4. Pain Caused Intentionally Feels More Painful
  5. Taste Sensitivity Is Related To Political
    Orientation
88
Q

pair tone with shock

A

fear conditioning

89
Q

Binocular Depth Cues: images giving slightly
different info to each eye

A

Binocular disparity

90
Q

Binocular Depth Cues: at close
distances, how much your eye is “crossed” gives the brain info about depth

A

Convergence

91
Q

monocular depth cues: railroad (top line farther, bottom closer) illusion

A

ponzo illusion

92
Q

monocular depth cues: top looks longer, arrows shrink (inward/outward) illusion

A

muller lyer illusion

93
Q

monocular depth cues: objects closer appear to move faster than further objects

A

motion parallax

94
Q

language we
speak constrains our perception and cognition

A

linguistic relativity (sapir-whorf)

95
Q

Building up to perceptual experience from individual pieces.

A

bottom-up processing

96
Q

Experience influences the perception of stimuli

A

Top-down processing

97
Q

A noninvasive brain-scanning procedure that uses X-ray absorption around the head.

A

CAT

98
Q

A neuroscience technique that passes mild electrical current directly through a brain area by placing small electrodes on the skull.

A

tDCS

99
Q

A neuroimaging technique that measures electrical brain activity via multiple electrodes on the scalp.

A

Electroencephalography (EEG)

100
Q

A neuroimaging technique that infers brain activity by measuring changes in light as it is passed through the skull and surface of the brain.

A

Diffuse optical imaging (DOI)

101
Q

A neuroimaging technique that measures brain activity by detecting the presence of a radioactive substance in the brain that is initially injected into the bloodstream and then pulled in by active brain tissue.

A

Positron emission tomography (PET)

102
Q

A neuroscience technique whereby a brief magnetic pulse is applied to the head that temporarily induces a weak electrical current that interferes with ongoing activity.

A

Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)

103
Q

fixed vs variable; interval vs ratio

A

fixed = every/fixed
variable = unpredictable

interval = time
ratio = # of

104
Q

skinner box

A

rat in box with levers to gain reward (food) to avoid punishment (shock)

105
Q

izard finding ( similar to Ekman)

A

happiness best recognized emotion

106
Q

naturalistic fallacy

A

is DOES NOT = ought
(evolution, sexual assault)

107
Q

what 4 does IQ predict?

A

1) retest reliability (later IQ tests)
2) educational achievement
3) health outcomes
4) death

108
Q

gardner

A

multiple intelligences

PSYCH 1101 Final (1 decks)

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