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Learning - PSY 346 > Final Quiz - Course Review > Flashcards

Final Quiz - Course Review Flashcards

1
Q

What are the three different big learning theories?

A

1) Classical
2) Operant
3) Social Learning

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2
Q

What is classical conditioning?

A

In classical conditioning, a stimulus comes to elicit a response because it has been paired (or associated) with another stimulus..

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3
Q

Behavior analysts who follow _______’s approach to behaviorism, typically refer to classical conditioning as ________ conditioning.

A

Skinner’s

respondent

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4
Q

Who is credited with the first systematic investigations into classical conditioning?

A

Ivan P. Pavlov

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5
Q

Explain the classic Pavolv experiment that he conducted with dogs

A

Pavlov would condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell. In order to do so, the bell (which started as a neutral stimulus (NS)) would be paired with a food (an unconditioned stimulus (US). The unconditioned response (UR) to food is salivation. Eventually, the bell would become a conditioned stimulus (CS) without the presence of food and saliva would still be produced as a conditioned response (CR).

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6
Q

Unconditioned Stimulus (US)

A

A stimulus that naturally elicits a response.

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7
Q

Unconditioned Response (UR)

A

The response that is naturally elicited by the US.

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8
Q

Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A

Any stimulus that, although initially neutral, comes to elicit a response because it has been associated (or paired) with an unconditioned stimulus.

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9
Q

Conditioned Response (CR)

A

The response, often similar to the UR, that is elicited by the CS.
The CR is never identical to the UR, only similar.

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10
Q

In the metronome example, the metronome is initially a(n) _________ stimulus because it (does/does not) elicit salivation. The food, however is a(n) _________ stimulus that elicits a(n) _________ response f salivation.

A

neutral

does not

unconditioned

unconditioned

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11
Q

During conditioning, the metronome can be labeled as either a(n) _________ stimulus or a(n) _________ stimulus.

A

neutral

conditioned

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12
Q

Following conditioning, the metronome is a(n) _________ stimulus, and the salivation elicited by the metronome is a(n) _________ response.

A

conditioned

conditioned

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13
Q

Each pairing of the metronome and the food is called a __________________; learning is most effective when these are spaced (far apart/close together).

A

conditioning trial

far apart

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14
Q

Using the appropriate abbreviations, label each component in the following diagram of a conditioning procedure:

Wasp: Painful sting -> Fear

Wasp -> Fear

A

NS: US -> UR

CS -> CR

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15
Q

The UR is the (learned/innate) response to the (NS/CS/US). The CR is the (learned/innate) response to the (NS/CS/US).

A

innate

US

learned

CS

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16
Q

The CS was originally a(n) (NS/US/UR). The CR is (often/always) (similar/identical) to the UR.

A

NS

often

similar

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17
Q

Operant Conditioning

A

A type of learning in which the future probability of a behavior is affected by its consequences.

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18
Q

Operant Behavior

A

A class of emitted responses that result in certain consequences.

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19
Q

Skinner’s definition of operant conditioning differs from Thorndlike’s law of effect in that it is (more/less) mentalistic.

A

less

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20
Q

Operant conditioning is similar to the principle of natural selection in that behaviors that are (adaptive/non-adaptive) tend to increase in frequency, while behaviors that are (adaptive/non-adaptive) decrease in frequency. The difference is that operant conditioning deals with changes within a(n) (species/individual) while the principle of natural selection deals with changes with a(n) _________.

A

adaptive

non-adaptive

individual

species

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21
Q

The process of operant conditioning involves the following three components: 1) a _________ that produces a certain _________, 2) a _________ that serves to either increase or decrease the likelihood of the _________ that preceded it, and 3) a _________ stimulus that precedes the _________ and signals that a certain _________ is now available.

A

response

consequence

consequence

behavior

discriminative

response

consequence

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22
Q

Classically conditioned behaviors are said to be _________ by the stimulus, while operant behaviors are said to be _________ by the organism.

A

elicited

emitted

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23
Q

Operant responses are also simply called _________.

A

operants

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24
Q

Operant behavior is usually defined as a(n) _________ of responses rather than a specific response.

A

class

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25
Q

An event is a reinforcer if it (precedes/follows) a behavior and (increases/decreases) the future probability of that behavior.

A

follows

increases

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26
Q

An event is a punisher if it (precedes/follows) a behavior and (increases/decreases) the future probability of that behavior.

A

follows

decreases

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27
Q

What is the difference between reinforcer/punisher and reinforcement/punishment?

A

Reinforcers and punishers are the specific consequence used to strengthen or weaken a behavior.

Reinforcement and punishment refer to the process/procedure by which a certain consequence changes the behavior.

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28
Q

Reinforcers and punishers are defined by their _____ on behavior.

A

effect

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29
Q

What is the importance of defining a consequence by their effect on behavior?

A

The definition of pleasant and unpleasant can vary for each subject. A punisher for one subject can be a reinforcer for a different subject.

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30
Q

What is extinction in regards to operant conditioning?

A

Extinction is the weakening of a behavior through non-reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior.

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31
Q

_____ tends to be (fast/slow) compared to punishment.

A

Extinction

slow

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32
Q

Discriminative stimuli is said to “_____ the _______” for the behavior, meaning that it’s presence makes the behavior (more/less) likely.

A

Set the occasion

more

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33
Q

What is the three-term contingency?

A

Discriminative stimulus + Operant behavior + Consequences

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34
Q

What is the A-B-C sequence of the three-term contingency?

A

Antecedent - Behavior - Consequence

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35
Q

What are the similarities between operant and classical conditioning?

A

Operant conditioning and classical conditioning can overlap that a particular stimulus can act as both a discriminative stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.

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36
Q

What is the conditioning sequence for classical conditioning?

A

Stimulus-stimulus-response (SSR)

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37
Q

What is the conditioning sequence for operant conditioning?

A

Stimulus-response-stimulus (SRS)

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38
Q

Escape Behavior

A

The termination (stopping) of an aversive stimulus.

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39
Q

Observational Learning (aka Social Learning)

A

The behavior of a model is witnessed by an observer and the observer’s behavior is subsequently changed.

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40
Q

Contagious Behaviour

A

A more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behavior triggered by the occurrence of the same behavior in another individual.

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41
Q

Stimulus Enhancement

A

The probability of a behavior is changed because an individual’s attention is drawn to a particular item or location by the behavior of another individual.

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42
Q

Vicarious Emotional Responses

A

Classically conditioned emotional responses that result from seeing those emotional responses exhibited by others.

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43
Q

In observational learning, the person performing a behavior is the _________; the person watching the behavior is the _________.

A

model

observer

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44
Q

From a classical conditioning perspective, smiles, giggles, and laughs are CSs that can elicit _________ _________ _________ in observers.

A

vicarious emotional responses

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45
Q

In fear conditioning, the expressions of fear in other people may function as (CSs/USs/both CSs and USs) that elicit the same emotional response in ourselves.

A

both CSs and USs

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46
Q

You may watch cooking shows on television and learn how to perform complex culinary feats. Translating that knowledge into a gourmet meal is the difference between learning and _________.

A

performance

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47
Q

An important aspect of gaining information about a modeled behavior is the extent to which we _________ to the model.

A

attend

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48
Q

You are more likely to pay attention to a model whose behavior is (reinforced/not reinforced), who is (similar/dissimilar) to you, who is (admired/hated), and who is a noted _________ in that activity.

A

reinforced

similar

admired

authority

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49
Q

Not only are you more likely to _________ to a model’s behavior if you see the model’s behavior reinforced, you are also more likely to _________ that behavior.

A

attend

perform

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50
Q

A second factor that influences whether we will perform a modeled behavior is the _________ we receive for performing the behavior.

A

consequence

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51
Q

A third factor that influences out performance of a modeled behavior is our _________ of _________ for performing modeled behavior.

A

history of consequences (reinforcement and punishment)

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52
Q

When you repeat an off-color joke to your friends, they laugh heartily; but when you tell the same joke to your parents, you are met with frowns. Due to _________ reinforcement, you soon learn to tell such jokes only when you are with your friends.

A

differential

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53
Q

Generalized Imitation

A

The tendency to imitate a new modeled behavior with no specific reinforcement for doing so.

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54
Q

True or False:

Orienting responses can also be contagious.

A

True, we orient toward stimuli we have sense as well as toward stimuli others have sensed.

For example, if someone gazes over your shoulder - you may have the urge to also look over your shoulder.

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55
Q

What are the characteristics of models we choose to imitate?

A

We imitate models that have reinforced behavior, that are admired, that are similar to us and an authority in the activity.

56
Q

Punishment, especially (positive/negative) punishment, can often elicit a strong _________ reaction. This reaching might include _________ that, if not directed toward the punisher, might be directed toward a substitute target.

A

emotional

aggression

57
Q

Punishment of an inappropriate behavior (will/will not) directly strengthen the occurrence of an appropriate behavior. It might even result in a _________ suppression of behavior.

A

will not

generalized

58
Q

The use of punishment could, through the process of _________, teach the recipient that punishment is an acceptable means for modifying a person’s behavior. Yelling at your dog for chewing your slippers might teach the dog to avoid _________ rather than the slippers. Yelling at your dog for chewing your slippers might also teach your dog not to chew the slippers only when _________.

A

modelling

you

you are absent

59
Q

If punishment has an _________ effect in getting someone to stop annoying us, this result can then act as a strong _________ _________ for suing punishment in the future.

A

immediate

negative reinforcer

60
Q

Beneficial side effects of punishment include increases in _________ behavior, improvements in _________, and increased _________ to the enviornment.

A

social

mood

awareness

61
Q

With verbally proficient humans, punishment tends to be more effective when it is accompanied by an _________.

A

explanation

62
Q

In general, when implementing a punishment procedure, one should begin with a punisher of sufficient _________ to suppress the behavior.

A

intensity

63
Q

Unlike reinforcement, punishment tends to have a stronger impact on behavior if delivered (consistently/intermittently).

A

consistently

64
Q

In general, when attempting to punish a maladaptive behavior, one should also attempt to _________ more adaptive behavior.

A

reinforce

65
Q

If punishment is to be used, it should be __________, since __________ punishment tends to be relatively ineffective.

A

immediate

delayed

66
Q

In general (positive/negative) punishment is preferred insofar as it is likely to have (more/fewer) side effects.

A

negative

fewer

67
Q

Behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus is called ________ behavior, whereas behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring is called ________ behavior.

A

escape

avoidance

68
Q

Julio initially takes vitamin C whenever he has a cold, in the hope that it will shorten the duration of his symptoms. Feeling that this is effective, he begin taking it daily in the hope that it will keep him from getting a cold. Julio initially takes vitamin C to (avoid/escape) the symptoms of a cold; he later took it to (avoid/escape) the symptoms of a cold.

A

escape

avoid

69
Q

Typically, one first learns to __________ from an aversive stimulus, and then to __________ it.

A

escape

avoid

70
Q

What role does “escaping” have in the two-process theory of avoidance?

A

Prior to avoiding an aversive stimulus, an individual must first learn to escape the stimulus. This happens via classical conditioning, in which an aversive response comes to be elicited by a CS. Once the response is conditioned, the organism is operantly conditioned to stay away from the CS via negative reinforcement.

71
Q

In the shuttle avoidance procedure described previously, the rat first learns to __________ from the shock, with the __________ acting as the S^d for the behavior. The rat later learns to __________ the shock with the __________ acting as the S^d for the behavior.

A

escape

shock

avoid

light

72
Q

It is relatively easy to understand the process of underlying (escape/avoidance) conditioning because the organism moves from a(n) __________ situation to a __________ situation. By contrast, it is more difficult to understand (escape/avoidance) conditioning because the organism moves from a(n) __________ situation to another __________ situation.

A

escape

aversive

non-aversive

avoidance

non-aversive

non-aversive

73
Q

Learned Helplessness

A

A decrement in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.

74
Q

The original experiments on learned __________ revealed that dogs that had first been exposed to inescapable shock had (no difficulty/difficulty) learning an escape response when later exposed to (escapable/inescapable) shock.

A

helplessness

difficult

escapable

75
Q

The effect of learned helplessness can be overcome by (forcing/enticing) the dogs to make an escape response. As well, dogs that have had previous exposure to escapable shock are (more/less) susceptible to becoming helpless when later exposed to inescapable shock.

A

enticing

less

76
Q

Learned helplessness may account for various difficulties in humans, including the clinical disorder known as __________.

A

depression

77
Q

Nativist (Nature)

A

A perspective that assumes that a person’s abilities and tendencies are largely inborn.

78
Q

Empiricist (Nurture)

A

A perspective that assume that a person’s abilities and tendencies are mostly learned.

79
Q

Nativist is to (nature/nurture) as empiricist is to (nature/nurture).

A

nature

nurture

80
Q

Overt Behavior

A

Behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior.

81
Q

Covert Behavior

A

Behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.

82
Q

Julie closes her office door when Jake is nearby, which is an example of a(n) (overt/covert) behavior. Julie also thinks unkind thoughts about Jake and feels nervous when he is around, both of which are examples of __________ behavior.

A

overt

covert

83
Q

Habituation

A

A decrease in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.

84
Q

Sensitization

A

An increase in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.

85
Q

Dishabituation

A

The reappearance of a habituated response to a stimulus following the presentation of another, seemingly irrelevant novel stimulus.

86
Q

An increase in the strength of a behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus is called __________.

A

sensitization

87
Q

A decrease in the strength of a behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus is called

A

dishabituation

88
Q

Learning to ignore the sound of dripping water is an example of __________; becoming increasingly aware of the sound of a jackhammer on the street below your apartment is an example of __________.

A

habituation

sensitization

89
Q

The fact that is has been several months since you noticed the sound of the morning and evening whistles at a nearby factory is an example of __________-__________ habituation. Such habituation tends to build up (quickly/slowly) following which, when the stimulus is no longer presented, the ability to respond recovers (quickly/slowly).

A

long-term

slowly

slowly

90
Q

In general, sensitization is (less/more) stimulus specific than habituation.

A

less

91
Q

In what is known as __________, the presentation of a (familiar/novel) stimulus during a period of habituation can sometimes result in the reappearance/disappearance) of the habituated response.

A

dishabituation

novel

reappearance

92
Q

In general, repeated presentations of a low-intensity stimulus results in __________, and repeated presentations of a high-intensity stimulus results in __________.

A

habituation

sensitization

93
Q

A stimulus of intermediate intensity will initially result in a period of __________, which is then followed by __________.

A

sensitization

habituation

94
Q

From an evolutionary standpoint, if a stimulus is irrelevant or “safe,” we tend to __________ to it, whereas if a stimulus is potentially dangerous we become __________ to it.

A

habituate

sensitized

95
Q

Opponent-Process Theory

A

An emotional event elicits two competing processes:

1) An a-process (or primary process) that is directly elicited by the event, and
2) A b-process (or opponent process that is elicited by the a-process and serves to counteract the a-process.

96
Q

What is the purpose of the “b-process” in the Opponent-Process Theory?

A

The b-process serves to maintain the state of internal balance (homeostasis); it helps to prevents the side effects of extreme a-process reactions.

97
Q

The opponent-process theory of emotion accounts for why a strong emotional response is often followed by a(n) (similar/opposite) emotional response.

A

opposite

98
Q

The __________-__________ is directly elicited by the emotional event; this in turn elicits the __________-__________, the purpose of which is to maintain a relatively balanced internal state known as __________.

A

a-process (or primary-process)

b-process (or opponent-process)

homeostasis

99
Q

The a-process correlates (closely/remotely) with the presence of the emotional event.

A

closely

100
Q

The b-process is (slow/fast) to increase and (slow/fast) to decrease.

A

slow

slow

101
Q

With repeated presentations of the emotional event, the (a-process/b-process) increases in both strength and duration.

A

b-process

102
Q

The a-process and b-process tend to be (opposite/similar) to each other.

A

opposite

103
Q

Orienting Response can be defined as

A

The automatic positioning of oneself to facilitated attending to a stimulus

104
Q

Flexion Response can be defined as

A

The automatic response of jerking one’s hand or foot away from a hot or sharp object

105
Q

The __________ response is an elicited set of movements designed to facilitate attending to a stimulus.

A

orienting

106
Q

Many simple reflexes are activated through a __________ __________ that consists of a (n) __________ neuron, a(n) __________ neuron, and a(n) __________ neuron.

A

reflex arc

sensory

inter-

motor

107
Q

Quickly jerking your hand or foot away from contact with an open flame or sharp object is a reflexive action known as __________ response. In such cases, the perception of pain generally (precedes/follows) the occurrence of the response.

A

flexion

precedes

108
Q

Spontaneous Recovery

A

The reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest period after extinction.

109
Q

Each time the response is spontaneously recovered, the response (strengthens/weakens).

A

weakens

110
Q

What was Pavlov’s view on spontaneous recovery?

A

Pavlov did not view the process of spontaneous recovery as unlearning a conditioned response, rather he viewed the process of extinction as learning something new.

111
Q

Experimental Neurosis

A

An experimentally produced disorder in which subjects exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms.

112
Q

In Shenger-Krestovnikova’s experiment the animal suffered a nervous breakdown when exposed to a CS+ and CS- that were made progressively (more/less) similar.

A

more

113
Q

Pavlov referred to breakdowns in experiments as __________ __________.

A

experimental neurosis

114
Q

How do test subjects develop experimental neurosis?

A

Test subjects are exposed to unpredictable events which causes them to develop neurotic-like symptoms.

115
Q

In Eysenck’s theory, introverts are (more/less) reactive to external stimulation than extroverts are, and they therefore (can/cannot) tolerate large doses of stimulation. Introverts also condition (more/less) easily than extroverts.

A

more

cannot

more

116
Q

In experimental neurosis, introverts developed __________-like symptoms and extroverts developed __________-like symptoms.

A

anxiety

physical

117
Q

Stimulus Generalization

A

The tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS.

118
Q

The more similar the neutral stimulus is to the CS, the (stronger/weaker) the response.

A

stronger

119
Q

Stimulus Discrimination

A

The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another.

120
Q

Feeling anxious around all objects that look like a rattlesnake is an example of stimulus __________, whereas feeling anxious only around rattlesnakes is an example of stimulus __________.

A

generalization

discrimination

121
Q

Counterconditioning

A

A CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response.

122
Q

What is reciprocal inhibition?

A

The occurrence of one response can be inhibited by the occurrence of an incompatible response.

123
Q

__________ __________ is the underlying process for counterconditioning.

A

Reciprocal inhibition

124
Q

Systematic desensitization is a form of __________.

.

A

counterconditioning.

125
Q

What is systematic desensitization?

A

A behavioral treatment for phobias that involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear.

126
Q

What are the three parts of systematic desensitization?

A

1) Training in relaxation
2) Creation of a hierarchy of imaginary scenes that elicit progressively intense levels of fear
3) Pairing of each item in the hierarchy with relaxation

127
Q

What is the difference between imaginal and in vivo?

A

Imaginal uses imaginary stimuli where as in vivo is carried out with real stimuli.

128
Q

Which is more effective: imaginal or in vivo?

A

In vivo

129
Q

Flooding is a type of __________.

A

counterconditioning

130
Q

What is flooding therapy?

A

A behavioral treatment that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished.

131
Q

For flooding therapy to be effective, the exposure period must be of relatively (long/short) duration.

A

long

132
Q

Shaping

A

The gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behavior.

133
Q

In clicker training with dogs, the click is a __________ reinforcer that has been established by first pairing it with __________ which is a __________ reinforcer.

A

secondary

food

primary

134
Q

The advantages of using the click as a reinforcer is that it can be delivered __________. It can also prevent the animal from becoming __________ on the reinforcer.

A

immediately

saturated

135
Q

Shaping is the creation of new operant behavior though the reinforcement of __________ __________ to that behavior.

A

successive approximations

Learning - PSY 346 (9 decks)

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