Final Quiz - Course Review Flashcards
What are the three different big learning theories?
1) Classical
2) Operant
3) Social Learning
What is classical conditioning?
In classical conditioning, a stimulus comes to elicit a response because it has been paired (or associated) with another stimulus..
Behavior analysts who follow _______’s approach to behaviorism, typically refer to classical conditioning as ________ conditioning.
Skinner’s
respondent
Who is credited with the first systematic investigations into classical conditioning?
Ivan P. Pavlov
Explain the classic Pavolv experiment that he conducted with dogs
Pavlov would condition dogs to salivate to the sound of a bell. In order to do so, the bell (which started as a neutral stimulus (NS)) would be paired with a food (an unconditioned stimulus (US). The unconditioned response (UR) to food is salivation. Eventually, the bell would become a conditioned stimulus (CS) without the presence of food and saliva would still be produced as a conditioned response (CR).
Unconditioned Stimulus (US)
A stimulus that naturally elicits a response.
Unconditioned Response (UR)
The response that is naturally elicited by the US.
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
Any stimulus that, although initially neutral, comes to elicit a response because it has been associated (or paired) with an unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR)
The response, often similar to the UR, that is elicited by the CS.
The CR is never identical to the UR, only similar.
In the metronome example, the metronome is initially a(n) _________ stimulus because it (does/does not) elicit salivation. The food, however is a(n) _________ stimulus that elicits a(n) _________ response f salivation.
neutral
does not
unconditioned
unconditioned
During conditioning, the metronome can be labeled as either a(n) _________ stimulus or a(n) _________ stimulus.
neutral
conditioned
Following conditioning, the metronome is a(n) _________ stimulus, and the salivation elicited by the metronome is a(n) _________ response.
conditioned
conditioned
Each pairing of the metronome and the food is called a __________________; learning is most effective when these are spaced (far apart/close together).
conditioning trial
far apart
Using the appropriate abbreviations, label each component in the following diagram of a conditioning procedure:
Wasp: Painful sting -> Fear
Wasp -> Fear
NS: US -> UR
CS -> CR
The UR is the (learned/innate) response to the (NS/CS/US). The CR is the (learned/innate) response to the (NS/CS/US).
innate
US
learned
CS
The CS was originally a(n) (NS/US/UR). The CR is (often/always) (similar/identical) to the UR.
NS
often
similar
Operant Conditioning
A type of learning in which the future probability of a behavior is affected by its consequences.
Operant Behavior
A class of emitted responses that result in certain consequences.
Skinner’s definition of operant conditioning differs from Thorndlike’s law of effect in that it is (more/less) mentalistic.
less
Operant conditioning is similar to the principle of natural selection in that behaviors that are (adaptive/non-adaptive) tend to increase in frequency, while behaviors that are (adaptive/non-adaptive) decrease in frequency. The difference is that operant conditioning deals with changes within a(n) (species/individual) while the principle of natural selection deals with changes with a(n) _________.
adaptive
non-adaptive
individual
species
The process of operant conditioning involves the following three components: 1) a _________ that produces a certain _________, 2) a _________ that serves to either increase or decrease the likelihood of the _________ that preceded it, and 3) a _________ stimulus that precedes the _________ and signals that a certain _________ is now available.
response
consequence
consequence
behavior
discriminative
response
consequence
Classically conditioned behaviors are said to be _________ by the stimulus, while operant behaviors are said to be _________ by the organism.
elicited
emitted
Operant responses are also simply called _________.
operants
Operant behavior is usually defined as a(n) _________ of responses rather than a specific response.
class
An event is a reinforcer if it (precedes/follows) a behavior and (increases/decreases) the future probability of that behavior.
follows
increases
An event is a punisher if it (precedes/follows) a behavior and (increases/decreases) the future probability of that behavior.
follows
decreases
What is the difference between reinforcer/punisher and reinforcement/punishment?
Reinforcers and punishers are the specific consequence used to strengthen or weaken a behavior.
Reinforcement and punishment refer to the process/procedure by which a certain consequence changes the behavior.
Reinforcers and punishers are defined by their _____ on behavior.
effect
What is the importance of defining a consequence by their effect on behavior?
The definition of pleasant and unpleasant can vary for each subject. A punisher for one subject can be a reinforcer for a different subject.
What is extinction in regards to operant conditioning?
Extinction is the weakening of a behavior through non-reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior.
_____ tends to be (fast/slow) compared to punishment.
Extinction
slow
Discriminative stimuli is said to “_____ the _______” for the behavior, meaning that it’s presence makes the behavior (more/less) likely.
Set the occasion
more
What is the three-term contingency?
Discriminative stimulus + Operant behavior + Consequences
What is the A-B-C sequence of the three-term contingency?
Antecedent - Behavior - Consequence
What are the similarities between operant and classical conditioning?
Operant conditioning and classical conditioning can overlap that a particular stimulus can act as both a discriminative stimulus and a conditioned stimulus.
What is the conditioning sequence for classical conditioning?
Stimulus-stimulus-response (SSR)
What is the conditioning sequence for operant conditioning?
Stimulus-response-stimulus (SRS)
Escape Behavior
The termination (stopping) of an aversive stimulus.
Observational Learning (aka Social Learning)
The behavior of a model is witnessed by an observer and the observer’s behavior is subsequently changed.
Contagious Behaviour
A more-or-less instinctive or reflexive behavior triggered by the occurrence of the same behavior in another individual.
Stimulus Enhancement
The probability of a behavior is changed because an individual’s attention is drawn to a particular item or location by the behavior of another individual.
Vicarious Emotional Responses
Classically conditioned emotional responses that result from seeing those emotional responses exhibited by others.
In observational learning, the person performing a behavior is the _________; the person watching the behavior is the _________.
model
observer
From a classical conditioning perspective, smiles, giggles, and laughs are CSs that can elicit _________ _________ _________ in observers.
vicarious emotional responses
In fear conditioning, the expressions of fear in other people may function as (CSs/USs/both CSs and USs) that elicit the same emotional response in ourselves.
both CSs and USs
You may watch cooking shows on television and learn how to perform complex culinary feats. Translating that knowledge into a gourmet meal is the difference between learning and _________.
performance
An important aspect of gaining information about a modeled behavior is the extent to which we _________ to the model.
attend
You are more likely to pay attention to a model whose behavior is (reinforced/not reinforced), who is (similar/dissimilar) to you, who is (admired/hated), and who is a noted _________ in that activity.
reinforced
similar
admired
authority
Not only are you more likely to _________ to a model’s behavior if you see the model’s behavior reinforced, you are also more likely to _________ that behavior.
attend
perform
A second factor that influences whether we will perform a modeled behavior is the _________ we receive for performing the behavior.
consequence
A third factor that influences out performance of a modeled behavior is our _________ of _________ for performing modeled behavior.
history of consequences (reinforcement and punishment)
When you repeat an off-color joke to your friends, they laugh heartily; but when you tell the same joke to your parents, you are met with frowns. Due to _________ reinforcement, you soon learn to tell such jokes only when you are with your friends.
differential
Generalized Imitation
The tendency to imitate a new modeled behavior with no specific reinforcement for doing so.
True or False:
Orienting responses can also be contagious.
True, we orient toward stimuli we have sense as well as toward stimuli others have sensed.
For example, if someone gazes over your shoulder - you may have the urge to also look over your shoulder.
What are the characteristics of models we choose to imitate?
We imitate models that have reinforced behavior, that are admired, that are similar to us and an authority in the activity.
Punishment, especially (positive/negative) punishment, can often elicit a strong _________ reaction. This reaching might include _________ that, if not directed toward the punisher, might be directed toward a substitute target.
emotional
aggression
Punishment of an inappropriate behavior (will/will not) directly strengthen the occurrence of an appropriate behavior. It might even result in a _________ suppression of behavior.
will not
generalized
The use of punishment could, through the process of _________, teach the recipient that punishment is an acceptable means for modifying a person’s behavior. Yelling at your dog for chewing your slippers might teach the dog to avoid _________ rather than the slippers. Yelling at your dog for chewing your slippers might also teach your dog not to chew the slippers only when _________.
modelling
you
you are absent
If punishment has an _________ effect in getting someone to stop annoying us, this result can then act as a strong _________ _________ for suing punishment in the future.
immediate
negative reinforcer
Beneficial side effects of punishment include increases in _________ behavior, improvements in _________, and increased _________ to the enviornment.
social
mood
awareness
With verbally proficient humans, punishment tends to be more effective when it is accompanied by an _________.
explanation
In general, when implementing a punishment procedure, one should begin with a punisher of sufficient _________ to suppress the behavior.
intensity
Unlike reinforcement, punishment tends to have a stronger impact on behavior if delivered (consistently/intermittently).
consistently
In general, when attempting to punish a maladaptive behavior, one should also attempt to _________ more adaptive behavior.
reinforce
If punishment is to be used, it should be __________, since __________ punishment tends to be relatively ineffective.
immediate
delayed
In general (positive/negative) punishment is preferred insofar as it is likely to have (more/fewer) side effects.
negative
fewer
Behavior that terminates an aversive stimulus is called ________ behavior, whereas behavior that prevents an aversive stimulus from occurring is called ________ behavior.
escape
avoidance
Julio initially takes vitamin C whenever he has a cold, in the hope that it will shorten the duration of his symptoms. Feeling that this is effective, he begin taking it daily in the hope that it will keep him from getting a cold. Julio initially takes vitamin C to (avoid/escape) the symptoms of a cold; he later took it to (avoid/escape) the symptoms of a cold.
escape
avoid
Typically, one first learns to __________ from an aversive stimulus, and then to __________ it.
escape
avoid
What role does “escaping” have in the two-process theory of avoidance?
Prior to avoiding an aversive stimulus, an individual must first learn to escape the stimulus. This happens via classical conditioning, in which an aversive response comes to be elicited by a CS. Once the response is conditioned, the organism is operantly conditioned to stay away from the CS via negative reinforcement.
In the shuttle avoidance procedure described previously, the rat first learns to __________ from the shock, with the __________ acting as the S^d for the behavior. The rat later learns to __________ the shock with the __________ acting as the S^d for the behavior.
escape
shock
avoid
light
It is relatively easy to understand the process of underlying (escape/avoidance) conditioning because the organism moves from a(n) __________ situation to a __________ situation. By contrast, it is more difficult to understand (escape/avoidance) conditioning because the organism moves from a(n) __________ situation to another __________ situation.
escape
aversive
non-aversive
avoidance
non-aversive
non-aversive
Learned Helplessness
A decrement in learning ability that results from repeated exposure to uncontrollable aversive events.
The original experiments on learned __________ revealed that dogs that had first been exposed to inescapable shock had (no difficulty/difficulty) learning an escape response when later exposed to (escapable/inescapable) shock.
helplessness
difficult
escapable
The effect of learned helplessness can be overcome by (forcing/enticing) the dogs to make an escape response. As well, dogs that have had previous exposure to escapable shock are (more/less) susceptible to becoming helpless when later exposed to inescapable shock.
enticing
less
Learned helplessness may account for various difficulties in humans, including the clinical disorder known as __________.
depression
Nativist (Nature)
A perspective that assumes that a person’s abilities and tendencies are largely inborn.
Empiricist (Nurture)
A perspective that assume that a person’s abilities and tendencies are mostly learned.
Nativist is to (nature/nurture) as empiricist is to (nature/nurture).
nature
nurture
Overt Behavior
Behavior that can potentially be observed by an individual other than the one performing the behavior.
Covert Behavior
Behavior that can be perceived only by the person performing the behavior.
Julie closes her office door when Jake is nearby, which is an example of a(n) (overt/covert) behavior. Julie also thinks unkind thoughts about Jake and feels nervous when he is around, both of which are examples of __________ behavior.
overt
covert
Habituation
A decrease in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.
Sensitization
An increase in the strength of an elicited behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus.
Dishabituation
The reappearance of a habituated response to a stimulus following the presentation of another, seemingly irrelevant novel stimulus.
An increase in the strength of a behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus is called __________.
sensitization
A decrease in the strength of a behavior following repeated presentations of the eliciting stimulus is called
dishabituation
Learning to ignore the sound of dripping water is an example of __________; becoming increasingly aware of the sound of a jackhammer on the street below your apartment is an example of __________.
habituation
sensitization
The fact that is has been several months since you noticed the sound of the morning and evening whistles at a nearby factory is an example of __________-__________ habituation. Such habituation tends to build up (quickly/slowly) following which, when the stimulus is no longer presented, the ability to respond recovers (quickly/slowly).
long-term
slowly
slowly
In general, sensitization is (less/more) stimulus specific than habituation.
less
In what is known as __________, the presentation of a (familiar/novel) stimulus during a period of habituation can sometimes result in the reappearance/disappearance) of the habituated response.
dishabituation
novel
reappearance
In general, repeated presentations of a low-intensity stimulus results in __________, and repeated presentations of a high-intensity stimulus results in __________.
habituation
sensitization
A stimulus of intermediate intensity will initially result in a period of __________, which is then followed by __________.
sensitization
habituation
From an evolutionary standpoint, if a stimulus is irrelevant or “safe,” we tend to __________ to it, whereas if a stimulus is potentially dangerous we become __________ to it.
habituate
sensitized
Opponent-Process Theory
An emotional event elicits two competing processes:
1) An a-process (or primary process) that is directly elicited by the event, and
2) A b-process (or opponent process that is elicited by the a-process and serves to counteract the a-process.
What is the purpose of the “b-process” in the Opponent-Process Theory?
The b-process serves to maintain the state of internal balance (homeostasis); it helps to prevents the side effects of extreme a-process reactions.
The opponent-process theory of emotion accounts for why a strong emotional response is often followed by a(n) (similar/opposite) emotional response.
opposite
The __________-__________ is directly elicited by the emotional event; this in turn elicits the __________-__________, the purpose of which is to maintain a relatively balanced internal state known as __________.
a-process (or primary-process)
b-process (or opponent-process)
homeostasis
The a-process correlates (closely/remotely) with the presence of the emotional event.
closely
The b-process is (slow/fast) to increase and (slow/fast) to decrease.
slow
slow
With repeated presentations of the emotional event, the (a-process/b-process) increases in both strength and duration.
b-process
The a-process and b-process tend to be (opposite/similar) to each other.
opposite
Orienting Response can be defined as
The automatic positioning of oneself to facilitated attending to a stimulus
Flexion Response can be defined as
The automatic response of jerking one’s hand or foot away from a hot or sharp object
The __________ response is an elicited set of movements designed to facilitate attending to a stimulus.
orienting
Many simple reflexes are activated through a __________ __________ that consists of a (n) __________ neuron, a(n) __________ neuron, and a(n) __________ neuron.
reflex arc
sensory
inter-
motor
Quickly jerking your hand or foot away from contact with an open flame or sharp object is a reflexive action known as __________ response. In such cases, the perception of pain generally (precedes/follows) the occurrence of the response.
flexion
precedes
Spontaneous Recovery
The reappearance of a conditioned response to a CS following a rest period after extinction.
Each time the response is spontaneously recovered, the response (strengthens/weakens).
weakens
What was Pavlov’s view on spontaneous recovery?
Pavlov did not view the process of spontaneous recovery as unlearning a conditioned response, rather he viewed the process of extinction as learning something new.
Experimental Neurosis
An experimentally produced disorder in which subjects exposed to unpredictable events develop neurotic-like symptoms.
In Shenger-Krestovnikova’s experiment the animal suffered a nervous breakdown when exposed to a CS+ and CS- that were made progressively (more/less) similar.
more
Pavlov referred to breakdowns in experiments as __________ __________.
experimental neurosis
How do test subjects develop experimental neurosis?
Test subjects are exposed to unpredictable events which causes them to develop neurotic-like symptoms.
In Eysenck’s theory, introverts are (more/less) reactive to external stimulation than extroverts are, and they therefore (can/cannot) tolerate large doses of stimulation. Introverts also condition (more/less) easily than extroverts.
more
cannot
more
In experimental neurosis, introverts developed __________-like symptoms and extroverts developed __________-like symptoms.
anxiety
physical
Stimulus Generalization
The tendency for a CR to occur in the presence of a stimulus that is similar to the CS.
The more similar the neutral stimulus is to the CS, the (stronger/weaker) the response.
stronger
Stimulus Discrimination
The tendency for a response to be elicited more by one stimulus than another.
Feeling anxious around all objects that look like a rattlesnake is an example of stimulus __________, whereas feeling anxious only around rattlesnakes is an example of stimulus __________.
generalization
discrimination
Counterconditioning
A CS that elicits one type of response is associated with an event that elicits an incompatible response.
What is reciprocal inhibition?
The occurrence of one response can be inhibited by the occurrence of an incompatible response.
__________ __________ is the underlying process for counterconditioning.
Reciprocal inhibition
Systematic desensitization is a form of __________.
.
counterconditioning.
What is systematic desensitization?
A behavioral treatment for phobias that involves pairing relaxation with a succession of stimuli that elicit increasing levels of fear.
What are the three parts of systematic desensitization?
1) Training in relaxation
2) Creation of a hierarchy of imaginary scenes that elicit progressively intense levels of fear
3) Pairing of each item in the hierarchy with relaxation
What is the difference between imaginal and in vivo?
Imaginal uses imaginary stimuli where as in vivo is carried out with real stimuli.
Which is more effective: imaginal or in vivo?
In vivo
Flooding is a type of __________.
counterconditioning
What is flooding therapy?
A behavioral treatment that involves prolonged exposure to a feared stimulus, thereby providing maximal opportunity for the conditioned fear response to be extinguished.
For flooding therapy to be effective, the exposure period must be of relatively (long/short) duration.
long
Shaping
The gradual creation of new behavior through reinforcement of successive approximations to that behavior.
In clicker training with dogs, the click is a __________ reinforcer that has been established by first pairing it with __________ which is a __________ reinforcer.
secondary
food
primary
The advantages of using the click as a reinforcer is that it can be delivered __________. It can also prevent the animal from becoming __________ on the reinforcer.
immediately
saturated
Shaping is the creation of new operant behavior though the reinforcement of __________ __________ to that behavior.
successive approximations
