Final Prep Flashcards
vitamins
organic compounds that are vital to life and indispensable to body functions but are needed only in minute amounts; noncaloric essential nutrients.
the fat soluble vitamins
Vitamin A, Vitamin D, Vitamin E, Vitamin K
the water soluble vitamins
B vitamins, Thiamin (B1), Riboflavin (B2), Niacin (B3), Folate, Vitamin B12, Vitamin B6, Biotin, Pantothenic acid, Vitamin C
precursors
provitamins compounds that can be converted into active vitamins.
beta-carotene
an orange pigment with antioxidant activity; a vitamin A precursor made by plants and stored in human fat tissue.
retinol
one of the active forms of vitamin A made from beta-carotene in animal and human bodies; an antioxidant nutrient. Other active forms are retinal and retinoic acid.
rhodopsin
the light-sensitive pigment of the cells in the retina; it contains vitamin A (rod refers to the rod-shaped cells; opsin means “visual protein”).
night blindness
slow recovery of vision after exposure to flashes of bright light at night; an early symptom of vitamin A deficiency.
epithelial tissue
the layers of the body that serve as selective barriers to environmental factors. Examples are the cornea, the skin, the respiratory tract lining, and the lining of the digestive tract.
cell differentiation
the process by which immature cells are stimulated to mature and gain the ability to perform functions characteristic of their cell type.
carotenoid
a member of a group of pigments in foods that range in colour from light yellow to reddish orange and are chemical relatives of beta-carotene, many with a degree of vitamin A activity in the body
retinol activity equivalents
a new measure of the vitamin A activity of beta-carotene and other vitamin A precursors that reflects the amount of retinol that the body will derive from a food containing vitamin A precursor compounds.
vitamin a functions
Vision; maintenance of cornea, epithelial cells, mucous membranes, skin; bone and tooth growth; regulation of gene expression; reproduction; immunity
vitamin d functions
Mineralization of bones and teeth (raises blood calcium and phosphorus by increasing absorption from digestive tract, withdrawing calcium from bones, stimulating retention by kidneys)
vitamin c functions
Collagen synthesis (strengthens blood vessel walls, forms scar tissue, provides matrix for bone growth), antioxidant, restores vitamin E to active form, supports immune system, boosts iron absorption
vitamin b functions
act as coenzymes that serve as helpers to the enzymes involved in the metabolism of food.
help cells to multiply (e.g., red blood cells and cells of the digestive and nervous systems).
are usually consumed in adequate amounts. Folate and vitamin B12 tend to be the B vitamins that are sometimes inadequate in Canadian diets.
are widely distributed in all food groups, except vitamin B12 that is found only in food of animal origin.
tend to be concentrated in the outer coating of grains; milling therefore causes a major loss.
are water soluble, are not stored in the body to any appreciable extent (except B12), are relatively non-toxic, and are excreted in the urine when consumed in excess.
folate functions
a part of coenzymes needed for new cell synthesis
collagen
the chief protein of most connective tissues, including scars, ligaments, and tendons, and the underlying matrix on which bones and teeth are built.
prooxidant
a compound that triggers reactions involving oxygen
coenzyme
a small molecule that works with an enzyme to promote the enzyme’s activity. Many coenzymes have B vitamins as part of their structure (co means “with”).
active forms of five of the B vitamins
thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenic acid, and biotin—participate in the release of energy from carbohydrate, fat, and protein.
Thiamin
a B vitamin involved in the body’s use of fuels.
beriberi
the thiamin-deficiency disease; characterized by loss of sensation in the hands and feet, muscular weakness, advancing paralysis, and abnormal heart action.
riboflavin
a B vitamin active in the body’s energy-releasing mechanisms.
niacin
a B vitamin needed in energy metabolism. Niacin can be eaten preformed or can be made in the body from tryptophan, one of the amino acids. Other forms of niacin are nicotinic acid, niacinamide, and nicotinamide.
Pellagra
the niacin-deficiency disease (pellis means “skin”; agra means “rough”). Symptoms include the “4 Ds”: diarrhea, dermatitis, dementia, and death.
folate
a B vitamin that acts as part of a coenzyme important in the manufacture of new cells. The form added to foods and supplements is folic acid.
b12
a B vitamin that helps convert folate to its active form and also helps maintain the sheath around nerve cells. Vitamin B12’s scientific name, not often used, is cyanocobalamin.
sources of vitamin a
Retinoyl: fortified milk, cheese, cream, butter, fortified margarine, eggs, liver
sources of beta-carotene
spinach and other dark, leafy greens; broccoli; deep orange fruit (apricots, cantaloupe) and vegetables (winter squash, carrots, sweet potatoes, pumpkin
sources of vitamin c
Citrus fruit, cabbage-type vegetables, dark green vegetables, cantaloupe, strawberries, peppers, lettuce, tomatoes, potatoes, papayas, mangoes
sources of vitamin d
Self-synthesis with sunlight; fortified milk, margarine, and yogurt; liver; sardines; salmon; shrimp
sources of folate
Asparagus, avocado, leafy green vegetables, beets, legumes, seeds, liver, enriched breads, cereal, pasta, grains
sources of b12
Meat, fish, poultry, liver, legumes, fruit, potatoes, whole grains, soy products
minerals
naturally occurring, inorganic, homogeneous substances; chemical elements.
major minerals
essential mineral nutrients found in the human body in amounts larger than 5 grams.
trace minerals
essential mineral nutrients found in the human body in amounts less than 5 grams.
water balance
the balance between water intake and water excretion, which keeps the body’s water content constant.
diuretic
a compound, usually a medication, causing increased urinary water excretion; a “water pill.”
hard water
water with high calcium and magnesium concentrations.
soft water
water with a high sodium concentration.
hydroxyapatite
the chief crystal of bone, formed from calcium and phosphorus.
fluorapatite
a crystal of bones and teeth, formed when fluoride displaces the “hydroxy” portion of hydroxyapatite. Fluorapatite resists being dissolved back into body fluid.
Functions of calcium in fluid
■Regulates the transport of ions across cell membranes and is particularly important in nerve transmission
■Helps maintain normal blood pressure (see Chapter 11)
■Plays an essential role in the clotting of blood
■Is essential for muscle co ntraction and therefore for the heartbeat
■Allows secretion of hormones, digestive enzymes, and neurotransmitters
■Activates cellular enzymes that regulate many processes
Function of iodine
(Thyroxin) Regulation of energy metabolism
Function of iron
(Hemoglobin) Oxygen transport
Function of zinc
(Insulin) Glucose utilization
Function of fluoride
(Fluorapatite) Strengthening of teeth
Hemoglobin
the oxygen-carrying protein of the blood; found in the red blood cells (hemo means “blood”; globin means “spherical protein”).
Myoglobin
the oxygen-holding protein of the muscles (myo means “muscle”).
iron deficiency the condition of having depleted iron stores, which, at the extreme, causes iron-deficiency anemia.
Iron-Deficiency anemia
a form of anemia caused by a lack of iron and characterized by red blood cell shrinkage and colour loss. Accompanying symptoms are weakness, apathy, headaches, pallor, intolerance to cold, and inability to pay attention.
Anemia
the condition of inadequate or impaired red blood cells; a reduced number or volume of red blood cells along with too little hemoglobin in the blood. The red blood cells may be immature and, therefore, too large or too small to function properly. Anemia can result from blood loss, excessive red blood cell destruction, defective red blood cell formation, and many nutrient deficiencies. Anemia is not a disease but a symptom of another problem; its name literally means “too little blood.”
Heme
the iron-containing portion of the hemoglobin and myoglobin molecules.
MFP Factor
a factor present in meat, fish, and poultry that enhances the absorption of nonheme iron present in the same foods or in other foods eaten at the same time.
Tannis
compounds in tea (especially black tea) and coffee that bind iron. Tannins also denature proteins.
Phytates
compounds present in plant foods (particularly whole grains) that bind iron and may prevent its absorption.
VLDL
lipoproteins that transport triglycerides and other lipids from the liver to various tissues in the body.
LDL
lipoproteins that transport lipids from the liver to other tissues such as muscle and fat; contain a large proportion of cholesterol.
HDL
which are critical in the process of carrying cholesterol away from body cells to the liver for disposal
Dietary antioxidant
a substance in food that significantly decreases the damaging effects of reactive compounds, such as reactive forms of oxygen and nitrogen on tissue functioning (anti means “against”; oxy means “oxygen”).
Arachidonic acid
an omega-6 fatty acid derived from linoleic acid.
EPA DHA
omega-3 fatty acids made from linolenic acid in the tissues of fish.
Food sources of omega 6
Linoleic acid Leafy vegetables, seeds, nuts, grains, vegetable oils (corn, cottonseed, safflower, sesame, soybean, sunflower), poultry fat
Food sources of omega 3
Linolenic acida Oils (canola, flaxseed, soybean, walnut, wheat germ; liquid or soft margarine made from canola or soybean oil)
Nuts and seeds (butternuts, fresh ground flaxseeds, walnuts, soybeans) Vegetables (soybeans)
Systolic pressure
the first figure in a blood pressure reading (the “dupp” of the heartbeat is heard), which reflects arterial pressure caused by the contraction of the heart’s left ventricle.
Diastolic pressure
the second figure in a blood pressure reading (the “lubb” of the heartbeat is heard), which reflects the arterial pressure when the heart is between beats.
Synergy
when two or more nutrients acting together create a greater benefit than would be expected from them individually.
Cancer
a disease in which cells multiply out of control and disrupt normal functioning of one or more organs.
Stages of cancer
Exposure to a carcinogen
- Entry of the carcinogen into a cell
- Initiation of cancer as the carcinogen damages or changes the cell’s genetic material (carcinogenesis)
initiation an event, probably occurring in a cell’s genetic material, caused by radiation or by a chemical carcinogen that can give rise to cancer.
carcinogenesis the origination or beginning of cancer.
4.Acceleration by other carcinogens, called promoters, so that the cell begins to multiply out of control—tumour formation
promoters factors that do not initiate cancer but speed up its development once initiation has taken place.
- Often spreading of cancer cells via blood and lymph (metastasis)
- Disruption of normal body functions
Metastasis
movement of cancer cells from one body part to another, usually by way of the body fluids.
Anticarinogens
compounds in foods that act in any of several ways to oppose the formation of cancer.
Cruciferous vegetables
vegetables with cross-shaped blossoms—the cabbage family. Their intake is associated with low cancer rates in human populations. Examples include broccoli, Brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, rutabagas, and turnips.
Acetaldehyde
a substance to which ethanol is metabolized on its way to becoming harmless waste products that can be excreted.
Alcohol Dehyrogenase
an enzyme system that breaks down alcohol. The antidiuretic hormone listed below is also abbreviated ADH.
Alcoholism
a dependency on alcohol marked by compulsive uncontrollable drinking with negative effects on physical health, family relationships, and social health.
Antidiuretic
a hormone produced by the pituitary gland in response to dehydration (or a high sodium concentration in the blood). It stimulates the kidneys to reabsorb more water and so to excrete less. (This hormone should not be confused with the enzyme alcohol dehydrogenase, which is also abbreviated ADH.)
CAGE questions
a set of four questions often used internationally for initial screening for alcoholism. The questions relate to C, Cutting down; A, Annoyance by criticism; G, Guilty feeling; and E, Eye-openers.
Cirrhosis
advanced liver disease, often associated with alcoholism, in which liver cells have died, hardened, turned an orange colour, and permanently lost their function.
Congeners
chemical substances other than alcohol that account for some of the physiological effects of alcoholic beverages, such as appetite, taste, and aftereffects.
Drink
a dose of any alcoholic beverage that delivers 15 mL of pure ethanol.
Ethanol
the alcohol of alcoholic beverages, produced by the action of microorganisms on the carbohydrates of grape juice or other carbohydrate-containing fluids.
Proof
a statement of the percentage of alcohol in an alcoholic beverage. Liquor that is 100 proof is 50% alcohol, 90 proof is 45%, and so forth.
Vegans need to supplement
B12, absorbable iron, calcium and zinc.
Vegetarian sources of calcium
calcium-fortified fruit juice (125 mL) figs (5) bok choy, broccoli, collards, Chinese cabbage, kale, or mustard greens (250 mL cooked or 500 mL raw) almonds (60 mL) cooked soybeans, including tofu (125 mL) fortified soy milk (125 mL)
