Brainscape's Knowledge GenomeTM

Browse over 1 million classes created by top students, professors, publishers, and experts.


See full index

Bio 311 Biochemistry > Final Practice Exam > Flashcards

Final Practice Exam Flashcards

You may prefer our related Brainscape-certified flashcards:
Biology 101 flashcards
1
Q

Tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency is caused by inborn errors impairing the biosynthesis of biopterin. One enzyme required for its biosynthesis is GTP cyclohydrolase 1 encoded by the GCH1 gene. Mutation of this gene may lead to a disease condition similar to:

Severe combined immune deficiency

Maple syrup urine disorder

PKU

Gout

A

PKU

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
2
Q

About enzymes and cofactors, which of the following statement is CORRECT?

Hydroxylation of phenylalanine to tyrosine requires tetrahydrofolate

Cytochrome P450-catalyzed oxidation uses heme as a cofactor, which is not a vitamin derivative

If a protein associates with an enzyme and modulates the enzyme activity, is is called a coenzyme

Biosynthesis of tetrabiopterin needs a vitamin precursor called biopterin

A

Cytochrome P450-catalyzed oxidation uses heme as a cofactor, which is not a vitamin derivative

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
3
Q

The potential causes of elevated levels of bilirubin or its derivates in blood (hyperbilirubinemia) include the following, EXCEPT for:

Liver failure, such as hepatitis (inflammation of liver) or liver car

Genetic defects of ALA synthase

Obstruction of bile duct caused by gallstone, inflammation, tumor, or other pathological changes

Hemolytic: e.g. increased breakdown of red blood cells

A

Genetic defects of ALA synthase

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
4
Q

About insulin, which of the following statement is NOT correct?

It is produced by pancreatic beta cells

Its target organs/tissues include liver, muscle and adipose

Its release is triggered by increased ATP production in B cells as a result of high blood glucose levels

It promotes both glycogenolysis and glycolysis to generate large amount of AlP in muscle

A

It promotes both glycogenolysis and glycolysis to generate large amount of AlP in muscle

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
5
Q

Liver may supply other organs with fuel in the following forms, except for:

Ketone bodies

Free fatty acids

Glucose

Acetyl-CoA

A

Acetyl-CoA

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
6
Q

Lack of folic acids may cause metabolic consequence and clinical manifestation similar to the deficiency of vitamin:

B7

B1

B6

B12

A

B12

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
7
Q

The amino acid used for biosynthesis of serotonin is:

Histidine

Proline

Tryptophan

Tyrosine

A

Tryptophan

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
8
Q

Human cells may synthesize non-essential, proteinogenic amino acids, where the carbon skeletons (a-keto acids) may derive from the following pathways, except for:

Glycolysis and gluconeogenesis

Urea cycle

Beta oxidation of palmitate

TCA cycle

A

Beta oxidation of palmitate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
9
Q

Two signaling molecules work together on the central nervous system to regulate our feeding behaviours. i.e. alpha-MSH and NYP. Generally, their effects are:

a-MSH inhibits whereas NYP stimulates food intake

a-MSH stimulates whereas NYP inhibits food intake

both stimulate food intake

both inhibit food intake

A

a-MSH inhibits whereas NYP stimulates food intake

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
10
Q

The biosynthesis of multiple neurotransmitters requires decarboxylation of amino acid precursors, a reaction may be directly impaired by the lack of vitamin:

B3

B6

B9

B12

A

B6

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
11
Q

Which of the following molecule is not one of the three polyamines used in packing newly synthesized DNA?

Spermine

Citrulline

Putrescine

Spermidine

A

Citrulline

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
12
Q

TCA cycle usually is stimulated by an increase of the following molecules, EXCEPT for:

Calcium

NADH

ADP

AMP

A

NADH

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
13
Q

S-Ado Met (SAM) serves as a methyl group donor in the following reactions, except for:

Protein methylation

Adrenaline biosynthesis

DNA methylation

Biosynthesis of polyamines

A

Biosynthesis of polyamines

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
14
Q

Which of the following molecules IS NOT directly involved in the urea cycle?

Citrulline

Homocysteine

Ornithine

Aspartate

A

Homocysteine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
15
Q

AMPK is considered intracellular energy sensor. Its activity is stimulated by an increase of

ATP

ADP

AMP

cAMP

A

AMP

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
16
Q

To culture cells defective in mitochondrial electron transfer chain, which of the following molecules is used to rescue the defective pyrimidine biosynthesis?

Guanine

Cytidine

Uridine

Thymidine

A

Uridine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
17
Q

NADPH is important for the following biological processes, EXCEPT FOR:

Producing ATP via ETC

Participating in oxidative biosynthesis, such as in cholesterol biosynthesis

Preventing oxidative damage to cell structures

Participating in reductive biosynthesis, such as fatty acid biosynthesis

A

Producing ATP via ETC

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
18
Q

Biosynthesis of aspartate can be achieved by a transamination between:

Oxaloacetate and alanine

Oxaloacetate and asparagine

Oxaloacetate and glutamate

Oxaloacetate and glutamine

A

Oxaloacetate and glutamate

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
19
Q

About metabolites in TCA cycle, which statement is NOT correct?

Oxaloacetate can be removed from the cycle to synthesize glucose, aspartate, and asparagine

Citrate can be transported to cytosol for biosynthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol

a-Ketoglutarate can be used to synthesize glutamate and glutamine

Fumarate can be used to synthesize heme and CoQ

A

Fumarate can be used to synthesize heme and CoQ

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
20
Q

2-deoxy-2-(18F)fluoro-D-glucose is a glucose analog, with the positron-emitting radionuclide fluorine-18 substituted for the normal hydroxyl group at the C-2 position in the glucose molecule. This molecule is recognizable by glucose transporters and hexokinases, but the lack of 2-hydroxyl group (as in normal glucose) blocks its catabolism and leads to its intracellular accumulation. Thus, this molecule is commonly used in Positron-Emission Tomography (PET) in clinical radiology to detect tissues, such as neuronal tissues and cancers that accumulate this molecule. Its increased uptake in tumor cells is mainly based on the:

Warburg effect

Pasteur effect

Both

Neither

A

Both

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
21
Q

About vitamin B1 derived cofactor thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), which of following statements is INCORRECT?

Required for pyruvate dehydrogenase complex

Required for transketolase activity

Required for transaldolase activity

Required for a-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase complex

A

Required for transaldolase activity

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
22
Q

In healthy person, after a good meal, which of the following transporters will be stimulated by insulin to translocate to the surface of adipocytes and myocytes?

Glut1

Glut2

Glut3

Glut4

A

Glut4

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
23
Q

Which of the following statement about lipoproteins is NOT correct?

Chylomicrons are originated from intestinal mucosa cells, carrying ApoB48 on its surface

LDL transports cholesterol from liver to extrahepatic tissues; so it is considered bad lipoprotein

HDL transports cholesterol from liver to extrahepatic tissues, but less than LDL, thus being considered good lipoprotein.

Generally speaking, HDL/VLDL/LDL are all originated from liver, directly or indirectly

A

HDL transports cholesterol from liver to extrahepatic tissues, but less than LDL, thus being considered good lipoprotein.

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
24
Q

About beta-oxidation of fatty acids, which of the following is NOT correct:

One chain fatty acyl-CoA needs carnitine and translocase to enter the mitochondrion

Each beta-oxidation cycle releases 1 acetyl CoA, 1 NADPH, and 1 NADH

The translocation step is repressed by high levels of malonyl-CoA

Unsaturated fatty acids can also be completely oxidized

A

Each beta-oxidation cycle releases 1 acetyl CoA, 1 NADPH, and 1 NADH

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
25
Q

Eicosanoids serves as local hormones. Leukotrienes belong to the eicosanoids family of signaling molecules which are synthesized by:

Neurons

Hepatocytes

White blood cells

Red blood cells

A

White blood cells

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
26
Q

The rate limiting enzyme of heme biosynthesis is ALA synthase. In hepatocytes, it is repressed by high levels of:

Iron

Glycine

Heme

Succinyl-CoA

A

Heme

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
27
Q

Refer to Figure provided: the molecule generated from aspartate transamination with alpha-KG is:

a

b

c

d

A

d

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
28
Q

To inhibit de novo biosynthesis of cholesterol, statin family drugs are developed to target HMG-COA synthase

True

False

A

False

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
29
Q

The molecule Glutathione is:

A tripeptide of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine, protecting cells from oxidative stress

A byproduct of glutamate catabolism

An enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of glutamate

A methyl group donor in methylation reactions

A

A tripeptide of glutamate, cysteine, and glycine, protecting cells from oxidative stress

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
30
Q

High level of ammonia in blood is toxic. Waste NH+ and amino group in skeletal muscles are transported to liver mainly in the form of:

Alanine and glutamine

Glutamate and arginine

Glutamate and glutamine

Asparagine and aspartate

A

Alanine and glutamine

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
31
Q

Ornithine decarboxylase is an enzyme involved in the urea cycle

True

False

A

False

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
32
Q

Oxidation of aromatic amino acids adds hydroxyl group to the ring. This type of reaction usually uses a cofactor:

Tetrahydrofolate

Tetrahydrobiopterin

Heme

PLP

A

Tetrahydrobiopterin

How well did you know this?
1
Not at all
2
3
4
5
Perfectly
33
Q

In the dynamics of phospholipids, phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) can be converted to phosphatylcholine (PC) by methylation

True

False

A

True

34
Q

Acetylcholine is:

A methyl group donor in methylation reactions

An allosteric regulator of phospholipid biosynthesis

A catabolic waste of phospholipid containing choline

A neurotransmitter synthesized from acetyl-CoA and choline

A

A neurotransmitter synthesized from acetyl-CoA and choline

35
Q

Under certain physiological conditions, nitric oxide synthases use arginine as substrate to produce nitric oxide (NO). NO binds to and activates the activity of a cytoplasmic enzyme to make:

cGMP

cCMP

cAMP

cUMP

A

cGMP

36
Q

Beta-oxidation of fatty acids mainly occurs in:

Golgi complex

Mitochondria

Nucleus

Cytosol

A

Mitochondria

37
Q

Glut2, like most metabolic enzymes, follows the Michaelis Menten kinetics. For such enzyme, determining the velocity vs. increasing substrate concentration (V vs. [S]), and plotting these data in a Lineweaver-Burk or double reciprocal plot results in a graph with:

A bell-shaped curve

A sine-shaped curve

A straight line

A hyperbolic curve

A

A straight line

38
Q

Methyl group carried by tetrahydrofolate may come from the following molecules, except:

Glycine

Betaine

Serine

Glutamate

A

Glutamate

39
Q

Ribonucleotide reductase is regulated allosterically. Its primary regulatory sites may bind to either dATP or ATP:

dATP activates; ATP inhibits

Both dATP and ATP activates its activity

ATP activates; dATP inhibits

Both dATP and ATP inhibits its activity

A

ATP activates; dATP inhibits

40
Q

Regarding prostaglandin biosynthesis. which statement is INCORRECT?

PLA2 is the enzyme that releases arachidonate from phospholipids

Products of this pathway promote inflammation, allergy, pain and thrombosis.

Fatty acid synthase (FAS) in human cells is responsible for the biosynthesis of the substrates

Cyclooxygenase (COX) is the key enzyme. which oxidizes the substrate arachidonate

A

Fatty acid synthase (FAS) in human cells is responsible for the biosynthesis of the substrates

41
Q

Biomolecules that can be derived from phenylalanine include the following molecules except for:

Histamine

Dopamine

Norepinephrine

Epinephrine

A

Histamine

42
Q

To use methionine as precursor to synthesize cysteine, we need another amino acid as substrate, which is:

Serine

Glycine

Alanine

Aspartate

A

Serine

43
Q

For de novo synthesis of purines, the rate limiting enzyme is glutamine-PRPP amidotransferase. Which of the following molecules will NOT repress its activity?

AMP

IMP

GMP

UMP

A

UMP

44
Q

Substrates for the biosynthesis of the pyrimidine ring include:

Glutamine, CO2, and aspartate

Glycine, succinyl-CoA, and CO2

Glutamine, glutamate, and aspartate

Glutamate, glycine, CO2, and aspartate

A

Glutamine, CO2, and aspartate

45
Q

Hepatocytes increase glucose uptake in response to increase in blood glucose levels. Consequently, high levels of G-6P in hepatocytes thermodynamically favors the formation of pentose-phosphate and stimulates the activity of a transcription factor called ChREBP/Mlx. Based on the logics we have discussed during the course, the genes stimulated by the transcription factor are most likely to:

Facilitate the mobilization of triacylglycerol

Facilitate the gluconeogenesis

Facilitate the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol

Promote the beta-oxidation of fatty acids

A

Facilitate the synthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol

46
Q

Regarding nucleotides, nucleosides, and nitrogenous bases, which statement is INCORRECT:

A nucleoside contains a nitrogenous base and a ribose

The key difference between NTP and dNTP is the oxidation state of the ribose

A nucleotide contains a nucleoside, with a phosphate at C3 or C5 position of the ribose furanose ring

The key difference between NTP and dNTP is the oxidation state of the nitrogenous base

A

The key difference between NTP and dNTP is the oxidation state of the nitrogenous base

47
Q

Refer to Figure provide: The molecule serves as substrate for malic enzyme in cytosol to generate NADPH is:

a

b

c

d

A

c

48
Q

Catabolism of dATP requires adenosine deaminase to remove the amino group to form hypoxanthine. Adenosine deaminase deficiency (ADA) may cause the following except for:

Lack of other dNTPs blocks T/B cell proliferation in response to microbial infection, causing severe combined immune deficiency (SCID) syndrome

Accumulation of dATP, which allosterically inhibits ribonucleotide reductase activity

Accumulated dATP forms crystals, damaging joints, causing gout

Accumulation of adenosine, which inhibits purine biosynthesis and reduces level of guanidine

A

Accumulated dATP forms crystals, damaging joints, causing gout

49
Q

Which of the following molecules is NOT directly involved in the biochemical reactions of cholesterol biosynthesis?

Choline

Isoprene

Mevalonate

HMG-CoA

A

Choline

50
Q

The rate limiting step of fatty acid biosynthesis is:

Citrate exporting out of mitochondria

Citrate cleavage in cytosol

Acetyl-CoA carboxylation

Condensing enzyme activity of FAS

A

Acetyl-CoA carboxylation

51
Q

Under starvation, which of the following carbon sources is unlikely a major source for anaplerosis:

Pyruvate from glycolysis

Glutamate and glutamine from breakdown of proteins

Glycerol from catabolism of phospholipids

Carbon skeleton from the degradation of pyrimidine

A

Pyruvate from glycolysis

52
Q

When oxygen is not available, glycolysis of three GLUCOSE MOLECULES TO FORM LACTATE MOLECULES will have a net gain of:

6 ATP

8 ATP

16 ATP

32 ATP

A

6 ATP

2 ATP per molecule of glucose in lactate fermentation

53
Q

In methylation reactions, two most commonly used DIRECT donors of methyl groups are:

Methionine and homocysteine

Arginine and lysine

Serine and glycine

Methyl-tetrahydrofolate and S-adenosyl-methionine (S-Ado-Met)

A

Methyl-tetrahydrofolate and S-adenosyl-methionine (S-Ado-Met)

54
Q

About catabolism of pyrimidines, which statement is correct?

Eventually disposed in the form of bile salts for excretion via bile duct

Eventually disposed in the form of CO2 and urea

Eventually converted to uric acid for excretion via the urinary system

Eventually disposed in the form of isoprene

A

Eventually disposed in the form of CO2 and urea

55
Q

In humans, the major form of nitrogen excretion is:

Creatine

Ammonia

Urea

Uric acid

A

Urea

56
Q

The biochemical nature of nucleotide reductation is to:

Remove an oxygen atom at C3 of the ribose furanose

Remove an oxygen atom at C2 of the ribose furanose

Introduce a hydroxyl group at C3 of the ribose furanose

Introduce a hydroxyl group at C2 of the ribose furanose

A

Remove an oxygen atom at C2 of the ribose furanose

57
Q

About nitric oxide (NO), which of the following statements is NOT correct?

It can be a hormone or a neurotransmitter, depending on cell origin and mode of release

After synthesis by hepatocytes, it travels long distance to regulate neuron and heart function

It binds a cytosolic receptor, which produces cGMP as second messenger

More than one isoenzyme of NO synthase catalyzes its biosynthesis on different cell types

A

After synthesis by hepatocytes, it travels long distance to regulate neuron and heart function

58
Q

Refer to fig provided: The molecule directly generated by the urea cycle and returned to TCA cycle is:

a

b

c

d

A

b

59
Q

One amino acid may serve as the substrate to contribute both carbon and nitrogen for the biosynthesis of another amino acid. Which one of the following amino acids can be used as such a substrate to synthesize proline?

Glutamate

Histidine

Serine

Aspartate

A

Glutamate

60
Q

The general outline of mobilization and utilization of endogenous TAG may include the following except for:

Insulin activates lipase on white adipose tissue (adipocytes), which releases fatty acids

Translocation of long chain acyl-CoA to mitochondria, a carnitine acyl-CoA transferase dependent process

Beta-oxidation in mitochondria, resulting cleavage by thiolase to form acetyl-CoA

Biochemical activation of free fatty acid by ATP to form acyl-CoA in the cytosol

A

Insulin activates lipase on white adipose tissue (adipocytes), which releases fatty acids

61
Q

Catabolism of odd-numbered fatty acids, some amino acids and other biomolecules may create propionyl-CoA or alpha-keto-butyrate. To completely oxidize these metabolites. In addition to the common vitamins B2, B5, and B3 based cofactors, we need special cofactors derived from:

Vitamin B7 only

Vitamin B12 only

Vitamin B9 and B12

Vitamins B7 and B12

A

Vitamins B7 and B12

62
Q

In catabolism of amino acids with non-alpha amino group such as glutamine and asparagine, the non-alpha amino group is usually removed by:

Oxidative deamination

Hydrolysis

Dehydration initiated deamination

Transamination

A

Hydrolysis

63
Q

For hepatocytes, the major type of glucose transporter is:

Glut3

Glut1

Glut4

Glut2

A

Glut2

64
Q

Biosynthesis of dNTP is critical for DNA replication in proliferating cells. One step in the synthetic pathway is to reduce the ribose of nucleotides catalyzed by ribonucleotide reductase. Which of the following is the substrate for this reaction?

Ribose phosphate

NMP

NDP

NTP

A

NDP

65
Q

In the biosynthesis of the pyrimidine, the first synthesized pyrimidine is:

Cytosine

Adenosine

Thymine

Uracil

A

Uracil

66
Q

In addition to form acetvl-CoA, other metabolic fates of pyruvate include the following, except for:

Reduction by lactate dehydrogenase to form lactate

Carboxylation by pyruvate carboxylase to form oxaloacetate

Transamination by GPT to form alanine

Phosphorylation by pyruvate kinase to form phosphoenolpyruvate

A

Phosphorylation by pyruvate kinase to form phosphoenolpyruvate

67
Q

Maple syrup disease is caused by the defective catabolism of:

Methionine, homocysteine, and cysteine

Tryptophan and histidine

Phenylalanine, tyrosine, & tryptophan

Leucine, isoleucine, and valine

A

Leucine, isoleucine, and valine

68
Q

Isotope tracing is a technique commonly used in metabolic study. If 14C labelled acetoacetate is used to culture neuronal cells, the isotope 14C is likely be detectable in the following molecules, except for:

Alpha-ketoglutarate

Pyruvate

Cholesterol

Oxaloacetate

A

Cholesterol

69
Q

The major regulatory factor of pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) is the cytosolic level of:

Pentose phosphate

NADH

NADPH

ATP

A

NADPH

70
Q

In human cell biochemistry, isoprene is also a required substrate for the biosynthesis of ubiquinol and lipoic acid

True

False

A

True

71
Q

Refer to Figure provided: The substrate for ETC complex II is:

a

b

c

d

A

a

72
Q

Cholesterol is the precursor for the following important molecules, except for:

Testosterone

Ubiquinol

Estrogen

Glucocortisol

A

Ubiquinol

73
Q

Leptin and adiponectin are two hormones released by fat tissues which regulate the body fat homeostasis. Which of the following statement is correct?

Both stimulates the catabolism of fat

Adiponectin releases following fat mass increases, which stimulates food intake as a positive physiological feedback

Both inhibits the catabolism of fat

Leptin increases when fat mass increases, which inhibits food intake as a negative physiological feedback

A

Leptin increases when fat mass increases, which inhibits food intake as a negative physiological feedback

74
Q

TCA cycle usually is repressed by an increase of the following factors, EXCEPT for:

AMP

ATP

NADH

Acetyl-CoA

A

AMP

75
Q

About urea cycle, which of the following statement is INCORRECT?

Each urea has two nitrogen, one from oxidative deamination of glutamate, and the other one from aspartate

Urea cycle borrows oxaloacetate from TCA cycle to take over amino group from glutamate via transamination: and return fumarate to TCA cycle

The urea cycle uses ornithine at early stage, and regenerate ornithine after arginine breakdown to urea and ornithine

If arginine is consumed in other biological processes, ornithine will be exhausted

A

If arginine is consumed in other biological processes, ornithine will be exhausted

76
Q

Purine and pyrimidine biosynthesis pathways could be targeted as approach to treat cancers and certain microbial pathogens such as viruses

True

False

A

True

77
Q

Biosynthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol needs acetyl-CoA and NADPH as substrates. In addition to pentose phosphate pathway, which of the following is an additional source of NADPH for each biosynthesis?

Malic enzyme-catalyzed oxidation of malate in the cytosol

Glycolysis

TCA cycle

Beta-oxidation of fatty acids in mitochondria recovers NADPH from NADP+

A

Malic enzyme-catalyzed oxidation of malate in the cytosol

78
Q

Patients with G6PD deficiency may show jaundice after ingesting certain food or drugs that triggers oxidative stress to cells. The most likely causes of jaundice in this case is the injury and breakdown of:

Hepatocytes

Red blood cells

Adipocytes

Myocytes

A

Red blood cells

79
Q

Transamination carried out by either amidotransferases or aminotransferases is an important process in both biosynthesis of non-essential amino acids and transport of amino groups from extrahepatic tissues to hepatocytes for disposal. This process requires a cofactor derived from vitamin:

B2

B5

B6

B7

A

B6

80
Q

If 15N-labeled glutamine is introduced into hepatocytes, which one of the following molecules is likely the last one to be labeled the tracible 15N?

Glutamate

Spermidine

Aspartate

Arginine

A

Spermidine

Bio 311 Biochemistry (3 decks)

Brainscape helps you reach your goals faster, through stronger study habits.
© 2024 Bold Learning Solutions. Terms and Conditions