Final Paper Flashcards
Study
What is ethocentrism?
viewing one’s own group as the center of
everything, scaling and rating all others with reference to its groups’ standards/norms … nourishing its own pride and vanity, by boasting of its superiority, exalting its own divinities, and looking with contempt on
outsiders” (Sumner, 1906:
‘Folkways’)
What are the Components of Group
Antagonism?
Stereotypes (cognitive)
Prejudice (affective)
Discrimination (behavioral)
Define Stereotypes
Stereotypes as associations and beliefs about the characteristics and attributes of a group and its members that shape how people think about and respond to the group
Beliefs about the personal attributes shared by people in a particular group or social category. May have a “grain of truth.” Usually contain much inaccuracy Over-generalized Overemphasize negative attributes Underestimate group variability
what is self-fulfilling prophecy?
the knowledge that one may be stereotyped by others can create a self-fulfilling prophecy. which can be influenced by others’ behavior
-When our beliefs and expectations influence our behavior at the subconscious level
a belief or expectation that an individual holds about a future event that manifests because the individual holds it (Good Therapy, 2015).
(is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation, evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true)
define stereotype threat
The threat of being evaluated, judged by, or treated in terms of a negative stereotype can cause individuals to perform worse in a domain in which negative stereotypes exist about a group of which they are a members.
The mere expectation of being stereotyped
The threat of confirming, as self-characteristic, a negative stereotype about one’s group (Steele & Aronson, 1995)
define Prejudice
Prejudice is an individual-level attitude (subjectively positive or negative) toward groups and their members that creates or maintains hierarchical status relations between groups
The evaluation of a group or an individual based mainly on group membership
Not necessarily negative:
ethnocentrism is positive prejudice
towards one’s in-group
examples of prejudice
Prejudice affects public policy preferences e.g; prejudiced whites oppose affirmative action and bilingual education prejudiced straights favor restrictions on HIV-positive individuals
define Discrimination
Discrimination by an individual as behavior that creates, maintains, or
reinforces advantage for some groups and their members over other
groups and their members.
Unjustified negative (sometimes
positive) behaviors towards
individuals based on their group
membership.
targets of discrimination
Racism Sexism Ageism Xenophobia Dis. of disabled people Dis. of poor people/social class segrega
Motives for Prejudice: what are the early
and contemporary approaches?
Mere exposure
Psychodynamic Approaches/Personality theories
Social dominance theory
Belief congruence
Social Learning theory
Social cognition/stereotype formation and change
Intergroup behaviour
a) Mere exposure effect (Zajonc,
1968) :
Repeated exposure to an object results in greater attraction to that object
b) Psychodynamic approach to prejudice /Frustration-Aggression hyp
Prejudice is viewed by some as displaced aggression onto a group that serves as a scapegoat.
Displaced aggression is often directed toward people from outgroups and toward people with less status and power than the aggressor.
Displacement occurs when an individual is frustrated or angered but cannot directly attack the source because of unavailability or fear. In those situations, people aggress against a scapegoat – someone whom they CAN attack and blame for their difficulties.
c) The authoritarian personality
theory treats prejudice as a
personality disorder (Adorno et
al., 1950)
prejudice develops in individuals with the Authoritarian Personality syndrome, characterized by hostility, rigid adherence to conventional patterns of behavior, belief in harsh punishment for deviant behavior, mysticism and superstition, and exaggerated submission to authority. e,g Blind submission to authority Middle-class conventionalism Aggression against those who do not live conventionally Tendency to think in rigid catego
d) Psychoanalysis
Status obsessed parents want to turn
their children (sexual, aggressive etc.)
into middle-class adults (self-controlled,
conformist etc.).
Strict, punitive, dominant parents expect
an obedient, conforming, submissive,
respectful child
Child’s unacceptable impulses become the
adult’s repressed aggression, fear and
sexuality
=> projection onto out-groups (stereotyped
as aggressive, sexually daring and bad)
what did Right-wing authoritarianism scale (RWAscale) (Altemeyer, 1981, 1988) predict? when measuring inter-individual differences in;
- Submission to authority
- Authoritarian aggression
- Conventionalism
- Together with intolerance against
ambiguity
=> Predicts stereotypes and prejudice
e)Cognitive approaces
define Dogmatism
Cognitive style that is rigid and
intolerant and predisposes people to
be prejudiced
explain Closed-mindedness theory (Rokeach,
1960)
Theory that people who have
dogmatic cognitive style are
predisposed to be prejudiced
f) Social dominance theory (e.g., Sidanius & Prato, 1999)
SDO is conceptualized as a measure of individual differences in levels of group-based discrimination;
that is, it is a measure of an individual’s preference for hierarchy within any social system and the domination over lower-status groups. It is a predisposition toward anti-egalitarianism within and between groups.
Asymetric social relations between social groups and categories Hierarchy enhancing or attenuating institutions (states, NGOs) Legitimizing myths and ideologies that justify hierarchies or equality Interindividual differences in social dominance orientation (SDO-scale)
Belief congruence (Rokeach, 1960)
The effect of shared beliefs on the reduction of prejudicial attitudes
Similar beliefs promote liking and social harmony and dissimilar beliefs, disliking and prejudice Does not apply if prejudice is institutionalized
Social learning theory
we learn prejudice the same way we learn other attitudes and values Socialization The Media
Realistic Group Conflict Theory
views prejudice as an inevitable consequence of conflict between groups for limited resources
arguing that when two groups are in competition for scarce resources, they threaten each other.
Threats create hostility and negative evaluations of each other.
Prejudice is therefore the inevitable consequence of a real conflict over resources desired by both groups. According to this theory, prejudice can be somewhat reduced if some needs are satisfied but never completely reduced because, given scarce resources, all needs of people in both groups will not be completely satisfied.
Relative Deprivation Theory
Fraternal Deprivation and Egoistic Deprivation.
when people perceive themselves to be deprived relative to others. this perception creates the intergroup hostility, rather than the actual relative status of the two groups. This often happens when conditions improve more slowly for one group than for another.
The two types of relative deprivation;
- Fraternal Deprivation; feeling that one’s group is deprived relative to another group. Fraternal deprivation is most closely linked with prejudice, social protest, and nationalism
- Egoistic deprivation; feeling that I am deprived relative to other people.
define Intergroup behaviour
"Whenever individuals belonging to one group interact, collectively or individually, with another group or its members in terms of their group identification, we have an instance of intergroup behavior" Sherif, 1966, p.
list the theories of intergroup
behaviour
Relative Deprivation
Realistic Conflict Theory
Social Identity Theory
Others…
Relative Deprivation (Gurr (1970, p. 24)
relative deprivation occurs when an individual feels entitled to a certain amount of goods (in absolute or relative terms), but feels to have only the capabilities to obtain less: the extent to which “value expectations” exceed “value capabilities”
3 types of deprivation
Decremental; No change expected but capabilities
diminish
Aspirational; Expectations increase but capabilities
remain the same
Progressive; Expectations increase faster than
capabilities
nature of Expectations in RDT
Discontent was as likely when economic
status was improving as when it was
declining Grofman & Muller (1973)
Folger (1977): certain conditions of
improvements produced some of the
angriest complains.
replacement effect
However: Crosby (1980): less resentment when future improvements were expected. => Hope can sometimes offset tendencies toward resentment (Replacement effect
hope and RDT
Abelson, 1983:
Hope is Presumed connection between desired
outcomes and causal instrumentalities
2 Types of improvment
Actual improvement (which is basis of reconstructed past)
b) Anticipated improvement (which can
serve as replacement)
Referent cognitions model (Folger)
Combines mental simulation with Relative
deprivation theory
Referent vs. likelihood outcomes Referent cognitions: things that people easily imagine having taken place, as contrasted with whatever actually took place Referent outcomes: What would have been the outcome, if…=> Frame of reference
RD and RE outcomes
RD is outcome of joint
- high referent outcome
- Low likelihood outcome
Replacement effect:
- high referent outcome, but also
- high likelihood outcome
Realistic conflict experimental outcomes
John Dollard (1938) found that hostility towards German immigrants in small American industrial town was based on rivalry for jobs
Perception, emotions, behavior
were affected by positive or
negative dependent goals
Experimental variation of goals led to predicted intergroup behavior (e.g., Blake & Mouton, 1986; Rabbie et al., 1974…) Brewer and Campbell (1976) ingroup bias among 30 tribal groups in East Africa: bias increased with proximit
Realistic conflict theory critism
anticipated competition has effects only
when strong ingroup-outgroup
differentiation is present
- Ingroup identification necessary
- Bias doesn’t simply disappear if former
hostile groups cooperate
- Perceived conflicts are more important
than "objective" conflicts
- Results of the minimal-group studies
("mere categorization")explaim Minimal group paradigm
investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups.
Strategies for mere categorization: MJP – Maximum joint profit MIP – Maximum ingroup profit MD – Maximum difference [F – Fairness (equallity)]
In 1971, Henri Tajfel conducted experiments to find out what the minimal conditions were for intergroup bias under the ftt condns
1.no face-to-face interaction
2. complete anonymity of group membership
3. no instrumental or rational link between
intergroup categorization and responses
4. no utilitarian value of responses to the
subject
5. ingroup favoring strategy should compete
with other, more “rational” strategies
6. responses should involve real decisions
about important issues and relevant
recourses
Minimal grp paradigm
investigating the minimal conditions required for discrimination to occur between groups.
simply affirms in-group favoritism.
All the groups shown significant favoritism for their in-group, and there was striking evidence for discriminatory in-group behavior. Similarly, experiment #2 resulted in significant in-group favoritism.
Social Identity Theory
(Tajfel and Turner, 1979; 1986). Based on interactionist meta-theory:
Social reality, groups, self and social context
are developed in social interactions. They
are meaningful and shared by group
members.
define Social group
collection of individuals who perceive themselves to be membersof the same social category,
share some emotional involvement, and achieve
some degree of social consensus about
the evaluation of their group and of their
membership in it. (Tajfel & Turner, 1986,
15)
2nd definition if Social group
They have a social and a psychological
reality
two or more people who share a common characteristic that is socially meaningful for themselves or for others
People within groups and groups
within people
They share an identity, have goals, are
interdependent and they have social
structures.
Social groups are social systems, a body of
real people that acts in the world.
what is Self-categories (Groups within people)
psychological representations in the mind
They are cognitive structures which
people use to define themselves and
to change their behavior
define Membership group(Defined by external criteria.)
Others and perhaps I consider myself to be a member of the certain category
Reference group:(Defined by internal criteria.)
Being a member of this group has a particular meaning for me. It provides the frame of reference for social
comparisons with others and is the basis of social identity.
=> Both aspects are related to each other, but
not the same
what is Social Identity:
that part of an individual’s selfconcept which derives from his/her knowledge of his/her membership of a social group (or groups) together with the value and emotional significance attached to that membership. (after Tajfel, 1978,
p. 63)
Assumptions of Social identity
Theory
- People strive for positive self-esteem
- Membership in positive or negative social groups or categories (evaluation socially shared) is basis of positive or negative social identity
- Evaluation is based on social comparisons with
other social groups
Principles of Social identity Theory
1.People strive to achieve or maintain positive
social identity
2. Positive social identity is based to a large extent
on favorable comparisons that can be made
between the in-group and some relevant outgroups (“positive distinctiveness”)
3. When social identity is unsatisfactory,
individuals will strive either to leave their
existing group and join some more positively
distinct group and/or to make their existing
group more positively distinct. (“identity
management strategies”)
