Final (Let 12-23) Flashcards
land use for agriculture
arable land, land for grazing, forest land, other
arable land
land use for growing crops in both permanent (tree crops) and temporary row crops (food and fiber)
land for grazing
pastureland for grazing livestock, either permanent or temporary meadows
forest land
primary forests, naturally regenerated forests, planted forests (logging)
other land use
urban land for buildup of cities, towns, etc.; barren lands like deserts, drylands, salt flats, etc.
extensification
bringing more lands into agriculture to produce more food
deforestation
removal of trees in a forest or tree stand for non-agricultural purposes
shifting agriculture
typically involves the clearing of small plots within forests in Africa, Central America & South America
7 agricultural products driving deforestation
- soybeans
- oil palm
- cattle
- coffee
- cocoa
- rubber
- wood fiber
negative effects of deforestation
- reduced carbon sequestration
- increased chances for wildfires
- increased erosion
- habitat fragmentation
- decreased biodiversity
greenhouse gas emissions
31% from livestock & fisheries
27% from crop production (industry & transportation)
greenhouse gases in agriculture
carbon dioxide, nitrous oxide, methane, ozone, hydrofluorocarbons, per fluorocarbons, sulfurehexafluoride
carbon dioxide (CO2)
74.4%, from running tractors/trucks and powering processing plants, liming and urea application, burning of crop residues
methane (CH4)
17.3%, released by decomposition of organic matter (food waste in landfills), plant matter in rice paddies, storage of manure in lagoons, enteric fermentation of livestock
nitrous oxide (N2O)
6.2%, produced by breakdown of stored manure, bacterial metabolism of nitrogen in soil
agricultural activities that contribute to emissions
- management practice of soil
- livestock digestion
- manure management
- rice cultivation
- burning crop residue
methane from rice production
accounts for more GHG production than any other food crop worldwide
enteric fermentation
A natural part of the digestive process in ruminant animals such as cattle, sheep, goats, & buffalo. microbes in the digestive tract, or rumen, decompose and ferment food, producing methane as a by-product. ~30% of anthropogenic methane is produced by animals for their meat and milk production.
contributions to N2O emissions
fertilizer application, methods of irrigation, tillage
nitrification
ammonia is converted to nitrate
denitrification
microorganisms remove oxygen from the usable forms, and it returns to the atmosphere as nitrogen or nitrous oxide
sources of methane and nitrous oxide
livestock urine and manure when broken down under anaerobic conditions
anaerobic conditions
occurs when animal waste is left in manure piles or in lagoons
properties of healthy soils
- regulating water
- sustaining plant and animal life
- filtering and buffering potential pollutants
- cycling nutrients
- providing physical stability and support
soil health depletion
- effect of monoculture
- pesticide residue in soil
- contamination of soil
- carbon sequestration
effect of monoculture (soil health depletion)
- monoculture of the same crops over multiple years can cause fields to have a reduction in nutrients and productivity
- decrease in beneficial microbes over time
- causes an increase of inputs needed: synthetic nutrients, synthetic pesticides, irrigation
pesticide residue in soil (soil health depletion)
- pesticide residues can persist in soils, depending on soil type and composition
- soil fumigants can kill both beneficial and non-beneficial soilborne organisms
contamination of soil (soil health depletion)
- animal waste can contain harmful bacteria and antibiotic residue leading to antibiotic resistance
- application of animal wastes can also cause heavy metal contamination from feed (copper, zinc, lead)
carbon sequestration (soil health depletion)
- healthy soils help to sequester carbon
- 1/3 of CO2 emissions are from clearing forests & the cultivation of land for agricultural use
- unsustainable practices like erosion, excessive tillage, hasten the release of carbon
tend to reduce soil health
- aggressive tillage
- annual/seasonal fallow
- mono-cropping
- annual crops
- excessive inorganic fertilizer use
- excessive crop residue removal
- broad spectrum fumigants/pesticides
tend to promote soil health
- no-till or conservation tillage
- cover crops; relay crops
- diverse crop rotations
- perennial crops
- organic fertilizer use (manures)
- crop residue retention
- integrated pest management
human health risks of industrial agriculture
- zoonotic pathogens
- antibiotic resistant bacteria
- mycotoxins
- pesticide toxicity
- air pollution
listeria
a serious infection usually caused by eating food contaminated with the bacterium Listeria monocytogenes
antimicrobials are used to ensure…
- animals will grow faster
- produce more meat
- avoid illnesses
livestock workers at a higher risk of contracting antibiotic resistant diseases
swine workers
mycotoxins
naturally occurring toxins produced by certain species of fungi, can cause a variety of serious illnesses in humans and livestock
causes of mycotoxins
improper handling of food during the growing process or during food storage
effects of mycotoxins
acute poisoning, immune deficiency, cancer, acute kidney failure, birth defects
action level
limits at or above which FDA will take legal action to remove products from the market
pesticide toxicity
the measure of its exposure/capacity to cause injury or illness
pesticide toxicity exposure
- unintentional environmental
- unintentional misuse
- unintentional occupational
- unintentional general
active ingredient
the chemical component in the pesticide product that controls the pest
types of toxicity exposure
- acute toxicity & effects
- chronic toxicity & effects
acute toxicity & effects
- short exposure
- four routes: dermal, inhalation, oral, ocular
- the concentration of a toxicant required to kill 50% of the animals in a test population
chronic toxicity & effects
- long exposure
- birth defects, tumors, genetic changes, blood & nerve disorders, endocrine disruption, reproduction effects
pesticide with the highest rate of danger to humans
insecticides
sources of air pollutants & particulates
- animal manure
- movement of animals within and between CAFOs
ammonia
formed when microbes decompose undigested organic nitrogen compounds in manure
sustainable agriculture
an integrated system of plant and animal production practices that have site-specific applications
practices of sustainable agriculture
- soil & water conservation
- soil fertility management
- crop diversity
- ecological pest management
- nutrient recycling
- mixed farming practices
- innovations for sustainability
soil conservation (sustainable agriculture)
cover crops, mulching, and retained residue protect the upper layer of soil that holds the most nutrients
water conservation (sustainable agriculture)
reusing and recycling water to manage overuse
techniques to conserve water
- drip irrigation
- capturing & storing rainwater
- irrigation scheduling
- drylands farming
- rotational grazing
- cover crops
- conservation tillage
soil fertility management (sustainable agriculture)
protecting soil and enhancing its beneficial properties by recycling nutrients using: green manure, rotating with crops such as legumes, and livestock manure
benefits of diverse cropping systems
- reduces pest buildup
- rejuvenates soil fertility (with legumes)
- increases soil biodiversity & biological activity
- greater resilience of the system
polyculture
an agroecosystem design in which multiple crop species occur at the same time
intercropping
growing two or more crops in close proximity, often as alternating rows or other repeating patterns
relay cropping
growing two or more annual crops simultaneously on the same land such that one crop is planted soon after the other has flowered
living mulch
a type of cover crop to conserve soil & moisture, help suppress weeds, and create habitats for beneficial insects
agroforestry
the practice of including trees in crop or animal production
alley cropping
planting rows of trees/shrubs to create alleys within which agricultural or horticultural crops are produced (helps diversify what the farmer can sell)
silvopasture
agroecosystem that combines trees and livestock graving
ecological pest management
preventative methods to control pest populations
trap cropping
the practice of incorporating attractive plants to draw pests away from primary crops
push-pull system
intercropping plants that attract common pests away from a primary crop along with plant species that deter or repel pests from the primary crop
law of return
nutrients removed must be returned in the quantities taken away, in order to maintain a balanced ecological state & fertile soil
mixed farming practices
using a variety of crop and animal species on farms to diversify
mixed species grazing
grazing with multiple animals species which helps to control parasites, increase meat yield per area, and increases soil fertility
rotational grazing
frequent movement of livestock through a series of pasture subdivisions called paddock to allow plants to rest and regrow to grazing height while livestock graze other paddocks
advantages of rotational farming
- reduces need for external synthetic fertilizers and pesticides
- livestock raised partially or entirely on pastures, better for soil health
- pasture-raised livestock require fewer antibiotics than those raised in CAFOs
- increased resilience of agricultural systems
- meet rising consumer demand for healthy, humane, sustainable meats & dairy and has potential for increased profitability
urban agriculture
practices of agricultural production and related processes taking place in spaces within cities and surrounding regions
controlled environment agriculture (CEA)
hydroponically-based agriculture where plants grow within a controlled environment to optimize horticultural practices
advantages of CEA
- growers can control for favorable conditions
- year-round growth of crops
- prevents weather, pest, and disease damage
- uses less water, pesticides, and fertilizer
- crops can be grown anywhere in the world
vertical farming
the practice of growing crops in vertically stacked layers
hydroponics
the technique of growing plants using a water-based nutrient solution rather than soil
aquaculture
the production of aquatic organisms under controlled conditions throughout part or all of their lifecycle.
aquaponis
a combination of fish and plant production and hydroponics
aeroponics
the process of cultivating plants in an air or mist environment, eliminating the need for soil or an aggregate medium
factors that affect a population
- natality
- moratility
- immigration
- emigration
natality
the number of births in a population
mortality
the number of deaths in a population
immigration
arrival of individuals from outside of the population
emigration
departure of individuals from the population
population density
the number of individuals of a population per unit area
push factor
reasons that person or group of people might emigrate from their home country
pull factor
reasons that a person or group of people might immigrate to a new location
total fertility rate
the total number of children that would be born to each woman if she were to live to the end of her child-bearing years and give birth to children in alignment with the prevailing age-specific fertility rates
replacement rate
number of children a women would have to have to maintain the population
population pyramids
a graphical representation of age and sex composition in a specific population
expansive population pyramids
rapid growth, large fertility rates and lower than average life expectancies
constrictive population pyramids
negative growth, lower percentage of young people
stationary population pyramids
slow growth, somewhat equal percentages for almost all age groups
demographic transition
a theoretical model of economic and cultural change that explains the decline in birth and death rates in Western nations as they became industrialized
carrying capacity
the maximum population size that a given environment can sustain
logistic growth curve
a plot that shows how the initial exponential growth of a population is slowed and brought to a limit
limiting factors
physical, chemical, or biological characteristic of the environment that restrains population growth
ecological footprint
the cumulative area of biologically productive land and water required to provide the raw materials a person or population consumes and to dispose of or recycle the waste that is produced
biocapacity
a term in ecological footprint accounting meaning the amount of biologically productive land and sea available for use
food deserts
geographic areas where residents’ access to affordable, healthy food options is restricted or nonexistent due to the absence of grocery stores within convenient traveling distance
food security
an adequate, reliable, and available food supply to all people at all times
high food security
no reported indications of food-access problems or limitations
marginal food security
one or two reported indications. typically, anxiety over food sufficiency or shortage of food in the house. little to no indication of changes in diets or food intake
low food security
reports of reduced quality, variety, or desirability of diet. little to no indication of reduced food intake
very low food security
reports of multiple indications of disrupted eating patterns and reduced food intake
local factors affecting food security
- income
- employment status
- race/ethnicity
- disability
- location
- age
- family composition
global factors affecting food security
- war/political conflicts
- trade
- pandemics
- prices of inputs
- overall costs & economy
- climatic conditions
malnourishment
the condition of lacking nutrients that the body needs, including a complete complement of vitamins and minerals
overnutrition
a condition of excessive food intake in which people receive more than their daily caloric needs
tragedy of the commons
the process by which publicly accessible resources open to unregulated use tend to become damaged and depleted through overuse
centers of origin
a geographical area where a group of organisms, either domesticated or wild, first developed its distinctive properties
top four countries for arable cropland
- India
- US
- China
- Russia
cereals
edible seeds from the grass family (wheat, rice, maize, barley, oats, etc.)
caryopsis
a type of dry, one-seeded fruit with a hard outer pericarp that is fused to the seed coat
pseudo-cereals
a group of plants that produce starch-rich seeds that can be used in food applications similarly to cereal grains (buckwheat, quinoa, etc.)
pulses
edible seeds from the legume family (peas, beans, lentils, etc.)
root vegetables
the root of the plant growing and absorbing nutrients belowground
tubers
form at the base of the root, store energy and support new root growth
countries that produce the most pulse crops
- India
- Nigeria
- Ethiopia
- China
- Turkey
countries that produce the most roots and tubers
- Laos
- Ethiopia
- DR Congo
- Indonesia
- Namibia
top sugar cane producers
- Brazil
- India
- China
- Pakistan
- Thailand
top sugar beet producers
- Russia
- France
- US
- Germany
- Turkey
top vegetable producers
- China
- India
- Nigeria
- Dominican Republic
- US
top fruit producers
- China
- India
- Brazil
- Turkey
- Mexico
wine production
- Italy
- Spain
- France
- US
- China
hops production
- US
- Germany
- Ethiopia
- Czechia
- China
pork production
- China
- European Union
- US
- Brazil
- Russia
poultry production
- China
- Indonesia
- Pakistan
- Brazil
- US
egg production
- China
- India
- Indonesia
- US
- Brazil
major dairy livestock
cattle, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and camels
dairy production
- India
- US
- China
- Brazil
- Germany
