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Systematics of vascular plants > Final lecture exam > Flashcards

Final lecture exam Flashcards

1
Q

Contemporary Methods

A
  • Plant Anatomy and Physiology - Embryology and palynology - reproductive biology - Chemical and molecular

-

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2
Q

Plant Anatomy

A
  • Plant anatomy is the study of the tissue and cell structure of plant organs - These features generally are more conservative than morphological vegetative features
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3
Q

Plant physiology

A

Plant physiology is the study of metabolic processes in plants

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4
Q

Anatomy and physiology text book

A

Plant Anatomy Katherine Esau’s (worked with beets)

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5
Q

Anatomical traits that form major vascular plant apomorphies

A

-Stomata -Tracheary elements -Sieve Elements -Endodermis (and Casparian strip) - Stele types -Secondary growth (wood) -C3 Photosynthesis -C4 photosynthesis

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6
Q

Stomata

A

-Subsidiary cells surround stomata and can vary in number. this number is consistent within a species and can be used for ID. - Potassium involved in opening and closing of stomata

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7
Q

Tracheary elements

A

Can be used as a character for ID - vessel elements and members can vary

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8
Q

Sieve elements

A
  • Sieve cells in ferns and conifers - Sieve tube members in flowering plants
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9
Q

Secondary growth

A
  • wood created by the vascular cambium - lots of variation in cell types of secondary growth
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10
Q

C3 photosynthesis

A

~85% of plants are C3 plants - Pallisade and spongy mesophyll undergo photosynthesis - RuBP carboxylase

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11
Q

C4 Photosynthesis

A
  • 1% plants - spatial separation - In hot and dry conditions where plants need to keep stomata closed during the day. To prevent photo respiration c4 takes over - CO2 builds up in bundle sheath cells - PEP carboxylase
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12
Q

CAM

A
  • 10% of plants - Very dry areas - stomata only open at night - temporal separation
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13
Q

Embryology

A
  • The study of the development of sporangia, gametophytes, and embryos. - It includes micro- and megasporogenesis, micro- and megagametogenesis, fertilization, and development of the endosperm, embryo, and seed coat. - typically more useful at higher taxonomic ranks, such as at the family level
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14
Q

Embryology text books (2)

A
  • Maheshwari An Introduction to the Embryology of Angiosperms - Davis Systematic Embryology of the Angiosperms
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15
Q

Anther type

A

Dithecal of monothecal

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16
Q

Pollen Nuclei at anthesis

A

2 or 3

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17
Q

Embryo sac types

A
  • types can be used in the classification of angiosperms but
    about 70 % of all angiosperms have the Polygonum type
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18
Q

Ovule micropyle types

A
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19
Q

Ovule Integument

A
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20
Q

Ovule types

A
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21
Q

Endosperm development

A
  • The amount of endosperm formed in seeds varies among angiosperms
  • some members have an abundance (monocots) and some have little (dicots)
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22
Q

Palynology

A

study of spores and pollen grains

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23
Q

Paleo-palynology

A

  • study of fossil pollen grains
  • used to determine past plant community structure and infer shifts in climate over time
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24
Q

Pollen Unit

A
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25
Q

Pollen Aperature

A

Monocolpate or tricolpate

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26
Q

Pollen shape

A
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27
Q
A

Pollen sculpturing

28
Q

Pollen wall Structure

A

  • Exine is composed of a carotenoid called sporopollenin, produced by the tapetum. The genes for exine patterning are transcribed in the spore mother cells before meiosis. The intine is composed of cellulose
  • The chemical terms ektexine and endexine sometimes are used instead of sexine and nexine
29
Q

Exine types

A

There are four basic exine types in angiosperms:

  • tectate-imperforate
  • tectate-perforate (mainly in primitive families)
  • semitectate
  • intectate (some advanced families)
30
Q

Chromosomes

Cytotaxonomy

A

refers to the use of chromosome number and shape in classification.

31
Q

Cytotaxonomy textbook

A

Stebbins

Chromosomal Evolution in Higher Plants

32
Q

Haploid Chromosome number

A

  • The haploid chromosome number refers to that found in egg and sperm nuclei.
  • In angiosperms, numbers range from n=2 in certain species of Haploppapus to about n=132 in a species of Poa.
  • Most plants have chromosome numbers that range between n=7 and n=12.
33
Q

Polyploids

A

  • About 40 % of the angiosperms are polyploids.
  • These occur when the chromosome number increases from its ancestral base number.

Examples:

-In the genus Eriogonum, the base number is x=10. Those species of Eriogonum with 40 chromosomes are termed tetraploids while those with 80 are octoploids.

34
Q

Aneuploidy

A

  • Chromosome number differs, but is not a multiple of the base number

Example:

In a few instances, chromosome numbers in Eriogonum are n=9, 11, 12, 16, 17, and 18.

35
Q

Homoploid

A

All members having the same haploid number

Example:

Pinus n=12

36
Q

Chromosome size

A

Chromosome sizes are occasionally significant. Species of Agave and Yucca, for example, have 5 large chromosomes and 25 small ones.

37
Q

Beetle pollenatio (cantharophily)

A

  • probably the first animal pollinators
  • beetles visit the flowers to eat the pollen. In doing so, they are covered with pollen, and pollination occurs accidentally
  • Bisexual flowers would have been more efficient than unisexual flowers when it came to pollination
  • Unspeciallized and clumsy
  • Magnolias
38
Q

Beetles were plentiful when the angiosperms appeared and were probably the first animal pollinators. The flowers of many living primitive plants are specialized for beetle pollination so we have an idea of what some of the primitive, beetle-pollinated plants, might have been like:

A

  • thick, leathery floral parts in which the calyx and corolla are often not strongly differentiated.
  • stamens that are often laminar (leaf-like). These stamens often have embedded anthers that open only by rotting, or by being chewed.
  • often have the odor of decaying animals.
39
Q

Modern beetle pollination

A

-most of these have ovules buried well beneath the floral chamber, out of the way of the beetles’ jaws

  • the flowers are either large and born singly or small and aggregated in an inflorescence
  • examples: magnolia, poppy, some lilies, dogwood
40
Q

Bee Pollination (melittophily / hymenopterophily)

A

  • bees are the most important group of flower-visiting animals
  • males and females live on nectar, and the females collect pollen to feed the larvae
  • bees do not see red well, thus, flowers are normally yellow or blue
  • ‘nectar guides’ may be present. These indicate the location of the nectar
  • examples: many legumes, mints, and orchids
41
Q

Fly Pollination (sapromyiophily)

A

  • flies feed on the nectar from flowers, but do not gather pollen
  • these flowers often have an odor and appearance that resembles rotting flesh or manure
  • example: voodoo lily
42
Q

Moth Pollination (Phalaenophily)

A

• most moths are nocturnal, and the typical moth-pollinated flower is white or pale in color, and has a heavy fragrance

the odor is often emitted after sunset

examples: tobacco, primrose

(yucca moth and yucca)

43
Q

Butterfly pollination ( psycophily)

A

  • butterfly and diurnal moths often visit flowers similar to those visited by bees
  • however, some butterfly-pollinated flowers are orange or red
  • nectaries are often located far down in a long slender corolla tube, accessible only to their long sucking mouthparts
  • examples: milkweed, daisy
44
Q

Bird Pollination (ornithophily)

A

• birds often feed on nectar, floral parts, and flower-inhabiting insects

  • hummingbirds are most common
  • these flowers usually have very little odor, as birds have a poor sense of smell
  • Red and yellow flowers are the most commonly visited
  • examples: columbine, fuschia, passion flower, hibiscus
45
Q

bat pollination (Cheiropterophily)

A

  • bats visit flowers for pollen and nectar
  • the large flowers produce much nectar
  • they are typically pale in color, and many open at night
  • bats are attracted to these flowers by their sense of smell

the odor is fermented, fruitlike, or musty

examples: cacti

46
Q

Wind pollination

A

  • dull colors, relatively odorless, do not produce nectar, petals absent or small, sexes often separate evolved from insect-pollinated flowers most frequently in temperate areas (trees leafless in spring)
  • also, trees of the same species are closer together in temperate regions
  • this is a very inefficient method since most of the pollen falls to the ground.
  • stamens are usually well exposed, so the wind can blow the pollen easily
  • pollen grains are usually smooth and small, and do not adhere to one another
  • the large stigmas are often exposed and have branches or feathery outgrowths adapted for intercepting wind-borne pollen grains
  • most flowers have ovaries with single ovules
  • examples: grasses, temperate trees
47
Q

Water Pollination

A
  • in some specialized aquatic plants, pollen is either transported underwater or floats across the water surface; and the pollen grains are threadlike or linked into chains to increase the chances of snagging a stigma

• in most aquatic plants, however, the flowers are above the water surface, and either wind- or insect-pollinated.

48
Q

FACTORS PROMOTING OUTCROSSING

A

1) Dichogamy - a temporal separation in the maturation of sex organs.

  • protandry - at the time of pollen release, the gynoecium is not developed to the point where fertilization of the ovule is possible
  • protogyny - at the time the gynoecium is ready for fertilization of the ovules, the pollen has not yet been released

2) Unisexuality - in some species unisexual flowers are produced (only stamens or carpels). Unisexuality is derived in most angiosperms. Most unisexual flowers have parts of the other sex in rudimentary form.
3) Genetic Self-Incompatibility - pollen is incapable of functioning on the stigma or in the style of flowers on the plant that produced it. Proteins may inhibit pollination by slowing down or stopping pollen tube growth, by stopping production of cutinase, which breaks down cutin, or by producing callose that blocks pollen tube growth.

49
Q

Plant sexuality

A
  • monoecious - male and female flowers on the same plant
  • dioecious - male and female flowers on different plants
  • polygamous - male, female, and hermaphroditic flowers produced by a species
  • polygamomonoecious - male, female, and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant
  • polygamodioecious - male, female, and hermaphroditic flowers on different plants
  • andromonoecious - male and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant
  • androdioecious - male and hermaphroditic flowers on separate plants
  • gynomonoecious - female and hermaphroditic flowers on the same plant
  • gynodioecious - female and hermaphroditic flowers on different plants
50
Q

Two basic types of genetic self incompatibility:

A

1) Multiallelic System - Each plant is heterozygous for a self-incompatibility factor (S). In each population there is a series of alleles, perhaps 100 different ones.

Normally, a pollen grain will not function on a style that carries the same S allele. There are 2 major types of multiallelic systems: gametophytic and sporophytic.

2) Diallelic System - This system is almost always associated with heterostyly.

It was first demonstrated by Darwin in 1877 in “The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species.”

  • pin flowers (long style and short stamens) and thrum flowers (short style and long stamens)
51
Q

Multiallelic system

Gametophytic

A

Gametophytic - each pollen grain has only the incompatibility type of the S allele it carries (incompatibility proteins are not produced until after the first cell wall).

1) stigma surface usually “wet” 2) rejection occurs in the style
3) pollen usually binucleate at the time of release
4) grasses and legumes.

52
Q

Multiallelic system

Sporophytic

A

Sporophytic - each pollen grain also express the incompatibility type of the other S allele of the parent (incompatibility proteins are produced before the first cell wall of meiosis is formed).

1) stigma surface usually “dry“ (hydrated, but no floating secretion)

2) rejection occurs on the stigma
3) pollen usually trinucleate at release

4) crucifers, composites

53
Q

Two major types of selfing

A
  • Autogomy and geitonogomy
  • In many species that are normally outcrossed, selfing will result in decreased or no seed set. If seedlings are produced, they will be slow growing and less vigorous.
54
Q

Self-incompatibility is considered primitive, and self-compatibility derived because:

A
  • in many genera where the phylogeny is well known, SC members are more recent.
  • many SC species possess structures that could only be of use in connection with cross- fertilization (colorful flowers in legumes).
  • examples observed in historical times, such as island studies.
55
Q

Chemosystematics

A

the application of chemical data to systematic problems. Technical developments in the 1940s resulted in the discovery of several classes of compounds that are now routinely applied to systematic problems.

56
Q

Chemosystematics textbook

A

Alston and Turner were the first to popularize the field with their 1963 book Biochemical Systematics.

57
Q

Chemosystematists often divide compounds into 2 major groups based on molecule size.

A
  • Compounds of relatively low molecular weight (≤1000) are termed micromolecules (alkaloids, amino acids, glucosinolates, flavonoids, terpenoids).
  • Compounds with high molecular weight (1000>) are termed macromolecules (proteins, DNA, RNA, cytochrome C, complex polysaccharides).
58
Q

Flavonoids

A

Flavonoids have been popular because they are universal. They may be easily isolated even from small amounts of material. The fact that 2000+ types have been isolated, and that the compounds are stable, makes them ideal study tools

59
Q

Two-dimensional chromatographs

A

Two-dimensional chromatographs have shown that compound profiles of different species are often different, but hybrids between such species are additive, that is, they often exhibit flavonoid profiles of both species

60
Q

Terpenoids

A
  • Terpenoids have been used extensively in such groups of plants as Lamiaceae, Apiaceae, and gymnosperms.
  • Because they are less widely distributed in plants, their value has been of lesser value than flavonoids.
  • Also, the more expensive equipment associated with gas chromatography has limited the overall use of these compounds.
61
Q

Proteins

A

Proteins are often studied by electrophoresis. A large number of different enzymes can be readily examined. The data can best be used at the lower taxonomic ranks, mainly below the genus. Significantly, it can be used even at the population level.

62
Q

Nucleic acids

A
  • Nucleic acids are now being studied with DNA and/or RNA hybridization possible.
  • This work is most exciting and is being used at the species level.
63
Q

CONTEMPORARY PHENETIC METHODS

A
  • Phenetic classifications attempt to base the classification of plants on patterns of overall similarity and dissimilarity between groups. This methodology takes advantage of the ability of computers to process large amounts of data very quickly.
  • It became known as numerical taxonomy in the 1960s, and was thought to be completely unbiased since many, many characters were analyzed.

Character states of different taxa are compared. Those taxa that share the most character states are thought to be most closely related in the phenetic sense.

64
Q

The steps used in a phenetic study are as follow:

A

1) Plants are described using as many characters as possible. Character states may be numerical values or simply present/absent.
2) The characters and organisms/taxa are arrayed in a Character X OTU table. OTU stands for Operational Taxonomic Unit. It may be an individual, a population, or a particular taxon.
3) A measure of similarity for every pair of taxa in the table must be calculated. This is done by the computer.
4) The similarity values are placed in an OTU X OTU table.
5) Cluster analysis is used to generate a diagram called a dendrogram of phenogram.
6) Taxa with high similarity values are interpreted as similar. The taxonomist determines how similar two ‘taxa’ must be to be considered the same.

65
Q

In a Phenetic study remember that:

A

  • The dendrogram is not a phylogenetic tree.
  • All characters are held to be of equal weight (importance).
  • Primitive and derived characters are not treated separately.
66
Q

CONTEMPORARY PHYLOGENETIC METHODS

A

Willi Hennig, in 1950, suggested a new method for phylogenetic classification called cladistics. This discipline attempts to determine ancestral and derived character states, and then show evolutionary lineages based on shared derived characters. Groups defined by such characters are said to be monophyletic

67
Q

Cladistic techniques:

A

1) Determine which character states are ancestral and which are derived.
2) This is done by determining an outgroup.
3) Use the principle of parsimony to determine the “best” cladogram

Systematics of vascular plants (10 decks)

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