final exams

Question 1

describe the OBD

Answer 1

-main purpose- to decentralise employment from the CBD
-accessibility - easy access, usually found near mayor transport routes
-hierachy- different size and organisation. Small- Dianella plaza, large lakeside joondalup.
Some found in traditional linear organisation Beaufort street mt Lawley.
-functions- mainly retail but also health and business
-process- aggregation- similar retail functions being located near each other.

Question 2

describe special purpose zone

Answer 2

• special purpose zones (SPZ)
• difficult to define as they are specific eg Perth Airport, UWA, SAS HQ, Kings Park.
• many are space extensive eg kings park, Claremont Showgrounds.
• some were originally located on the RUF but due to Invasion+Succession are now within residential zones.
• some are undesirable in nature eg prisons, rubbish tips.

Question 3

Compare and contrast the characteristics of the CBD and IMZ

Answer 3

The main functions of the CBD are for commercial use, such as businesses and large corporations- there is residential areas but they tend to be concentrated in high apartment buildings- the inner mixed zone too has residential zones and commercial uses- but not as concentrated/compact as the CBD.
Because of its high employment rate- the CBD has a large daytime population and minimal nighttime population- this is contrasted with areas in the inner mixed zone such as Northbridge, with a bustling nightlife.
Both the CBD and IMZ rely on the same transport links. Businesses are pushed from the CBD into the IMZ due to urban outgrowth- meaning the transport links are beneficial to both areas.
-the IMZ is more susceptible to experiencing urban blight due to cheaper land, and not enough demand- whereas the CBD experiences land use competition- meaning land won’t often fall into disrepair- the prices for land is higher- meaning more of it is used

Question 4

describe the urban-rural fringe

Answer 4

• mixed land use - includes rural, residential, special purpose functions.
• land use conflict- as a result of range of land uses I.e undesirable functions.
• dynamic - constantly changing a urban area expands - invasion and succession
• urban shadow effect- due to invasion and succession.
• space extensive functions - due to availability and cost of land.

Question 5

-the age trends within metropolitan perth

Answer 5

• 15-35 years greater perth (due to universities, more work and higher education)
• 35+, both greater perth and WA have similar female pops until 80+ (tend to be in greater perth)
• Higher proportion of a younger pop 0-15 living in outer suburbs such as the new growth zone, further from CBD. -NGZ tend to not attract older populations due to the lack of established facilities and services
• Higher proportion of older population 65+ living in older established residential zone. This is due to more established services such as health care and public transport.
• Northbridge and areas closer to CBD appeal to DINKS (double income no kids) and single males as it is an area close to work and entertainment precincts.
• Inner city isn’t ideal for growing a family due to the lack of space and cheap land, which is why they’re attracted to NGZs

Question 6

income trends in perth

Answer 6

The income patterns across the Perth metropolitan area varies greatly, with this suburbs in desirable locations (e.g. Dalkeith) having a population with higher weekly incomes compared to undesirable locations (e.g. Medina). The weekly median household income for residents in Cottesloe is $2494 compared to $836 in Median.
The established residential zone have higher home ownership and therefore wealth, due to established mortgages being paid off and wealth being accumulated over time. The newer growth zone have a lower weekly income, due to these areas attracting newer families and therefore not having enough time to pay off their mortgages and accumulate wealth.

Question 7

education and employment trends in perth

Answer 7

• The lower socioeconomic trends are generally associated with areas occupied by workers and a higher degree of rental properties, due to the undesirable location within the metropolitan area (close to industrial areas and special purpose zones). These areas also have a higher proportion of unemployed people (e.g. Girrawheen, Armadale and Kwinana).
• The higher socioeconomic trends are generally associated with areas occupied by professionals, who have a higher university degree and education and therefore higher income. These areas trend to be located in more desirable locations within the metropolitan area, where land value is high and properties are owned rather than rented (e.g. City Beach).
• The Australian government has also encourages international students to study abroad in Australia from neighbouring Asian countries. These students tend to located into suburbs close to universities, resulting in these areas to experience a high proportion of rental properties (e.g. Nedlands, Bentley and Joondalup).
• Ethnic clustering occurs in a number of areas within the metropolitan area, due to factors such as religion. This attracts migrants to live in areas amongst similar ethnicities due to languages. Ethnic clustering occurs in established populations who have been in a place for many years (e.g. North Perth).

Question 8

site and situation characteristics of perth:

Answer 8

• perth is sited approximately 10-15 metres ASL

- perth is situated approximately latitude 31°57’S and longitude 115°51’E

Question 9

site characteristics of metropolitan perth

Answer 9

the perth metropolitan area is located on the swan coastal plain, sited on flat to gently undulating sand dunes with some depressions (eg Herdsmans lake and bibra lake.)

Question 10

describe Perths external morphology:

Answer 10

broadly described as being a semi-stellate shape, becoming more rectangular over time as urban sprawl takes place.

• it extends from the yanchep in the north to Mandurah in the south. east to west orientation extends from the Indian Ocean in the west and the darling scarp to the east.
• perth has a semi stellate shape due to the swan-canning river systems and the corridors created by the freeways (Mitchell, kwinana, great eastern etc).

Question 11

describe Perths internal morphology:

Answer 11

• CBD
• IMZ inner mixed zone
• ERZ established residential zone
• NGZ newer growth zone
• IZ industrial zone
• RUF rural urban fringe
• OBD outer business district
• SPZ special purpose zone.

Question 12

describe Perths CBD:

Answer 12

• commercial and administrative functions
• centre for gov offices
• dieurnal population (high daytime pop due to employment, low nighttime pop due to commutes)
• central transport node: eg central point for trains and bus services and the zone through which many arterial roads converge- high accessibility.
• horizontal and vertical zonation
• dynamic zone (constantly changing with demand)

Question 13

describe Perths IMZ:

Answer 13

• mixed functions (residential, commercial, recreational, transport etc)
• high accessibility, ability for expansion, less congestion, cheaper land
• process of invasion and succession occurs here
• aggregation of medical and mining offices in West Perth.
• urban blight occurs
• ethnic clustering

Question 14

describe Perths ERZ:

Answer 14

• largest functional zone- includes mt Lawley, Claremont, vic park.
• density of housing varies in these areas- some places like joondana experiencing subdivision of blocks.
• land values also depend on suburbs location and attractiveness eg Claremont had an annual median house price of $1.4 mil.
• older houses- well established with access to services
• older population as a population will remain in one place
• gentrification: the restoration and renovation of older residential areas which result in higher land value forcing low income workers out.

Question 15

characteristics of Perths NGZ:

Answer 15

• modern houses (less established gardens and quick building)
• curvilinear and quadrant cell layouts (eg older than 10 years as seen in Ellenbrook and less than 10 in Darch.)
• lack of services
• demographic (younger people)
• urban sprawl
• boundary of ERZ, satellite suburbs like Ellenbrook.
• NGZ invade RUF (expense of agricultural activities.)

Question 16

characteristics of Perths industrial zone:

Answer 16

• industrial functions (eg light and medium industrial zones- industries with less capital tend to be consumer orientated whereas capital intensive industries produce more heavy articles.)
• agglomeration- as seen in Kwinana and malaga
• transportation - influenced by the development of transportation networks eg Freo, port.
• large areas of land
• land use conflict (eg produce pollution that can cause land use conflict with neighbouring regions.)

Question 17

characteristics of perths RUF

Answer 17

• mixed land use (rural, residential, SPZs.)
• land use conflict (eg range of houses
• dynamic: eg constantly changing as urban areas expand (invasion and succession)
• urban shadow effect- due to invasion and succession
• space extensive functions: eg availability and cost of land.

Question 18

2 site characteristics of NYC

Answer 18

• located on an undulation coastal plain- Atlantic Coastal Plain
• generally flat land- highest point Todt Hill (Staten Island) 124.9m ASL

Question 19

what is demographics?

Answer 19

the study of the characteristics of a population of people eg age, ethnicity, socio economic characteristics.

Question 20

discuss the age trends within metropolitan perth-

Answer 20

• 15-35 years in perth (due to universities, more work and higher education)
• in 2011, median age of perth pop 35.7 years
• Children 0-14 made up 19.2% of the pop and people 65+ make 12.5% of pop
• Higher proportion of a younger pop 0-15 living in outer suburbs such as the new growth zone, further from CBD. -NGZ tend to not attract older populations due to the lack of established facilities and services
• Higher proportion of older population 65+ living in older established residential zone. This is due to more established services such as health care and public transport.
• Northbridge and areas closer to CBD appeal to DINKS (double income no kids) and single males as it is an area close to work and entertainment precincts.
• Inner city isn’t ideal for growing a family due to the lack of space and cheap land, which is why they’re attracted to NGZs

Question 21

discuss income trends in perth

Answer 21

The income patterns across the Perth metropolitan area varies greatly, with this suburbs in desirable locations (e.g. Dalkeith) having a population with higher weekly incomes compared to undesirable locations (e.g. Medina). The weekly median household income for residents in Cottesloe is $2494 compared to $836 in Median.

The established residential zone have higher home ownership and therefore wealth, due to established mortgages being paid off and wealth being accumulated over time. The newer growth zone have a lower weekly income, due to these areas attracting newer families and therefore not having enough time to pay off their mortgages and accumulate wealth.

Question 22

discuss education and employment trends in perth

Answer 22

The lower socioeconomic trends are generally associated with areas occupied by workers and a higher degree of rental properties, due to the undesirable location within the metropolitan area (close to industrial areas and special purpose zones). These areas also have a higher proportion of unemployed people (e.g. Girrawheen, Armadale and Kwinana).

The higher socioeconomic trends are generally associated with areas occupied by professionals, who have a higher university degree and education and therefore higher income. These areas trend to be located in more desirable locations within the metropolitan area, where land value is high and properties are owned rather than rented (e.g. City Beach).

The Australian government has also encourages international students to study abroad in Australia from neighbouring Asian countries. These students tend to located into suburbs close to universities, resulting in these areas to experience a high proportion of rental properties (e.g. Nedlands, Bentley and Joondalup).

Ethnic clustering occurs in a number of areas within the metropolitan area, due to factors such as religion. This attracts migrants to live in areas amongst similar ethnicities due to languages. Ethnic clustering occurs in established populations who have been in a place for many years (e.g. North Perth).

Question 23

what is sustainability?

Answer 23

Refers to the long term adaptation and survival of a city through simultaneous environmental, social and economical development.

Question 24

what is liveability?

Answer 24

Refers to the quality of the spatial and built environment. It is a way of examining a community’s quality of life through connections and interactions with natural and built environment- affected by several factors including:

• stability
• healthcare
• amenities
• social and civic capital
• economic
• education
• infrastructure

Question 25

discuss the 3 factors for planning a population change

Answer 25

Growth factors- natural increase and migration flows
The demographic transition is a theory that outlines how it is that cities/regions change their natural growth rates. Death rates are high where there is poverty and industrial development in cities is more associated with opportunities. So when people moved to cities the population rate increased initially- before dropping again when the birth rate dropped. Australian cities are growing rapidly due to immigrants coming in young and having families

Urbanisation rates
Cities have been growing based on the new economic opportunities and the services that come from urban concentration. Many social opportunities created such as education and work. In 1900 only 5% of of people lived in cities and has risen to over 50% by the early 21st century. Projections now suggest that will rise to 75% by 2050.

Population planning
In June 2015, the population of greater perth was 2.04 million people, which was 79% of states total population. Between 2013-14 greater perth increased by 2.5%. Once population characteristics and dynamics are understood, strategic planning needs to try and understood and plan for where the people are likely to be living and working.

Question 26

CHALLENGE 1 PROVISION OF HOUSING:

causes and implications

Answer 26

There has been a decrease in median house prices since 2016, which helps with the affordability of housing, there has been a decrease in sales which has been a contributing factor to a lower median price. Since 1974, perth has experienced increases in the housing market during periods of high economic growth (2005-2006) with an increase of $100,000. This suggests that although there has been a decrease in median house price, it is still relatively expensive to afford housing in Perth. However perth is only the 4th most expensive city in australia, with Sydney as number 1 (median house is just under 1 million). Challenge for housing in Perth is also due to difficulty for first home buyers to get into the market- after the 2009 financial crisis, banks make the requirements for mortgage loans more difficult to achieve. Maintaining payments may also be difficult due to increased interest payments or unexpected shifts in employment.
Potential homelessness is a threat in public housing areas due to rent-stress, this has been on the rise as the waiting list gets longer, putting younger people at risk of losing their home. Urban sprawl is also another problem occurring due to the high demand of housing.

Question 27

CHALLENGE 1 PROVISION OF HOUSING:

planning strategies and stakeholders

Answer 27

The state governments Affordable Housing Strategy 2010-2020 was implemented in 2010, the key stakeholders involved in this are the housing authority, low to medium income earners and private sector developments, one of its main aims is to deliver 30,000 homes for household on low to moderate incomes. Not only is its goal to supply public housing but to offer a range, therefor they team up with private and community sectors to boost the range of housing supplied. Receiving $20.5 million to channel towards;
1-A stronger, social housing sector
2-A larger and more diverse pool of affordable private rentals
3-An alternative housing market
4-A more dynamic transition-oriented housing continuum.

Question 28

CHALLENGE 1 PROVISION OF HOUSING:

liveability

Answer 28

In a study commissioned by the department of Housing and Planning, it examined what people in perth and peel region considered the most important when choosing a place to live. 98% wanted to own their own home, as this provided financial security and stability of location, allowed for socialising and building ties with a community too. Another goal was to live in a safe neighbourhood, as seen in the New North Project, renewal can help mitigate crime rates (reduced by 78%). Other goals include diversity of housing and a desire to live in established neighbourhoods, with an easy commute to work, schools etc. these goals can all be achieved through urban renewal projects of inner suburb areas.

Question 29

CHALLENGE 1 PROVISION OF HOUSING:

housing authority initiatives

Answer 29

• National Rental Affordability Scheme: aims at stimulating the supply of new affordable rental dwellings through the reduction in rental costs by 20% below market rates for 10 years
• Keystart Home Loans: range of homeowner products which enable people to enter the housing market or own their own property and is aimed at assisting public tenants
• First Home Buyer Assistance: one off payment to help families purchase a new house and enter the housing market
• Home Buyers Assistance Account: provides financial support to first home buyers and grants up to $2000 when purchasing established houses or new houses under $400,000 – grant is used for incidental expenses that first home buyers experience
• Stamp Duty Concession: tax levied on legal documents which are necessary in the transfer of an asset – concession rate or transfer duty will apply for house and land values up to $530,000 and $400,000 for land
• First Home Saver Account: provides a grant of up to $2000 to pay real estate agent expenses when purchasing a new home (house must be below $400,000)
• Land and Housing Developments: construction and urban renewal projects are joint ventures between the Housing Authority and private developers, with the aim to facilitate the increase of housing supply and diversity of housing within a variety of metropolitan locations
• Cassia Estate (Kwinana): delivers 950 home sites of a different range of lot and housing options catering for all budgets and household sizes, with the aim to develop a community
• New North Project: joint venture between the Housing Authority and Satterley/McCusker Property Group, with the aim to refurbish, demolish and develop properties in Balga, Girrawheen, Koondoola and Westminster
• Abode Apartments (West Perth): development of an apartment block, with 10 storeys and 86 apartments which costs approximately $333,000 per apartment – encourages inner city living and increases density through housing diversity to combat urban sprawl

Question 30

CHALLENGE 1 PROVISION OF HOUSING:

sustainability

Answer 30

• Economic: the encouragement of new housing developments is designed to help with affordable housing and has an economic multiplier effect – encourages growth in the construction industry and therefore increased productivity, which results in the increase of the GDP within the state (e.g. Affordable Housing Strategy)
• Social: ensuring affordable housing for low to moderate income earners reduces the personal stress and financial burden that occurs due to the lack of housing supply – government policies provide housing for the most vulnerable and encourages the purchase of properties, which allows people to accumulate wealth and therefore provides a more secure future for families
• Environmental: encourages urban sprawl, due to offers of land and house packages in newly developed areas rather than buying established houses, which is not acceptable for sustainable planning - involves the clearing of land of greenfield sites and results in the loss of habitats (e.g. New North Project develops housing in already established areas to eliminate urban sprawl)

Question 31

CHALLENGE 1 PROVISION OF HOUSING:

comparisons with Australia and overseas

Answer 31

New York City has an ever-growing population, which is encourages through the continual creation of new jobs and employment opportunities. This results in approximately 50% of the population to work in the service industry and therefore earn a relatively low income. The provision of affordable housing is different in NYC, due to the lack of space and the already high density level.

The current NYC strategy Housing New York: A Five Borough, Ten Year Plan is addressing this issue and aims to supply 200,000 units in 10 years (60% from preservation and 40% from new construction), with the government also supplying direct and indirect subsidies through the following initiatives:

• Low Income Housing Credits: housing credits made available to developers who agree to set aside units to low income families
• 80/20 New Construction Program: low cost financing to developers who set aside 20% of units for low income families
• Tenant Based Section 8: government delivers subsidies directly to families
• New York Housing Authority: public housing which means the government owns the rents and tenants

Question 32

discuss the environmental interdependence between rural and urban places:

Answer 32

• rural areas hold value to urban dwellers as a short term escape, valued for their beauty and remoteness.
• alternatively an adventure experience may be desired involving an open space for extreme sports and activities.
• people in their age tend to move to these rural areas to escape the business of the city, as it is cheaper, slower and more safe. However if this continues on a large scale these remote areas no longer remain secluded. Eg Mandurah
• worldwide, rural places are viewed as dumping grounds for urban wastes
• urban places rely on rural areas to manage the environment effectively, to ensure the needs of a growing population are met.
• clean air, water, soil fertility, drought mitigation, pollution mitigation, pest control and climate stabilisation are all dependent on how well a rural area is managed.
• both rural and urban places require healthy environments (soil, water, atmosphere, eg) in order to function.

Question 33

discuss the economic interdependence between rural and urban places:

Answer 33

• foods are produced in rural places and transported to urban places for further processing and distribution
• in aus, 40% of farm produce is consumed domestically, 60% is exported overseas
• often agriculture is processed and packaged in urban places and then redistributed to urban and rural areas
• raw materials from mining and forestry are exported from rural to urban dwellings, it also creates jobs in both regions
• 25-40% of all office space in the Perth CBD is linked to mining industries
• royalties and taxes are collected from mining companies, which are used to fund gov infrastructure in both urban and rural places
• energy production for urban areas is predominantly carried out by rural places, as this is where the resources (coal, oil and gas) are found, as well as the power plants
• the vast majority of employment is based in urban areas, along with the opportunity for higher education, social and sporting opportunities.
• the movement of young adults from these rural places to urban places is known as the rural-urban drift.
• capitol and profits made in urban areas are redistributed and placed back into rural areas, including food and fibre research, alternative energy generation, farm assistance, and investments in infrastructure and services.
• The Royalties for Regions program in WA, involves the setting aside of millions for these rural communities.

Question 34

discuss land use competition, accessibility, probability and economic rent:

Answer 34

• competition within cities for land is intense. This is particularly true with respect to those areas which are highly accessible. Take for example the CBD of perth. This area enjoys particularly good transport links and is a node for rail services. As a result land prices (economic rent) within this area are high, hence the reason that multi level buildings can be found there.
• as you move further away from the CBD, land prices become cheaper- hence why you see larger, single level properties.

Question 35

what is urban sprawl

Answer 35

refers to the low density outward growth of urban areas into the surrounding rural lands and ecosystems.

Question 36

describe invasion and succession

Answer 36

• invasion occurs when one land use function begins to move into another land use zone.
• succession takes place when the invading function becomes the dominant function within the area.

Question 37

describe urban blight and the urban shadow effect

Answer 37

• urban blight refers to urban buildings and suburbs falling into disrepair, occurring due to uncertainty of future.
• urban shadow effect: where structures in rural areas adjacent to an urban area deteriorate due to land use conflict.

Question 38

what is a renewal project?

Answer 38

are long-term government funded programs of land redevelopment occurring in moderate to high density urban areas. It often involves the relocation of businesses, structures and people.

Question 39

what is agglomeration?

Answer 39

refers to the grouping together or clustering of similar land use functions within an urban and rural place. For example Kwinana.

Question 40

what is inertia?

Answer 40

is a process that acts to limit change within an urban or rural area by refusing to move from original location even though the original benefits for the O.G location no longer apply. Eg, the old perth town hall.

Question 41

what is planning?

Answer 41

is split into 3 levels- federal, state and local. Federal government oversees structures such as ports, airports, national security structures etc.
State governments are responsible for overall regional and urban planning within their jurisdictions (local transport, land use planning, educational facilities. Future growth plans such as the greater Bunbury region scheme are all under state government.
Local government authorities govern local council policies and bylaws, decisions on residential areas, pathways and roads. Individual land and building owners must obtain approval from local councils before alterations or buildings commence.

Question 42

site characteristics of perth:

Answer 42

• SITE: 10-15m ASL
• located on the swan coastal plain, sited on flat to gently undulating sand dunes with some depressions i.e Herdsman’s Lake, Bibra Lake

Question 43

situation characteristics of perth

Answer 43

-SITUATION: 31°57’S, 115°51’E

Question 44

describe and account for Perth’s external morphology:

Answer 44

Perths external boundary can be described as semi-stellate in shape, becoming more rectangular in shape over time as urban sprawl occurs. The extent of the urban area is approx 1,600 square kms. The north to south coastal corridor extends 130 kms from two rocks to Mandurah. The east to west extend extends 25-30 kms along the coastal plain.
Perth is sited on the swan coastal plain which is sandy and gently undulating, and ranges in height from sea level to approx 60 metres ASL. The coastal plain is stable and well-drained, inter-dual swales run along the western side of the plain- parallel to the coast and include lake joondalup, lake monger and bibra lakes. The site factors which have limited growth include the darling escarpment and the state forest to the east and the Indian Ocean to the west. The darling escarpment steeply rises to an elevation of 300 metres ASL, with lateritic soils and granite outcrops which is not favoured for development. Perths semi-stellate area is encouraged due to the inhibiting of urban growth due to the protection of the gnangara and Jandakot water mounds.
Perth is situated on the south west coast of australia in WA, the latitude and longitude of perth is 31°57’S 115°51’E. Perth is situated 2,700 kms west of Adelaide.

Question 45

list the challenges facing rural australia: (7)

Answer 45

• popualtion loss
• isolation and remoteness, poor provision of services, transport and housing
• declining political influence
• FIFO work patterns and economic restructuring
• concentrations of socially vulnerable populations
• resource degradation and water supplies
• land use conflict

Question 46

list the challenges facing urban australia: (7)

Answer 46

• urban sprawl
• transportation
• congestion
• economic restructuring and employment
• socio-spatial inequality and social inclusion
• housing
• land abandonment and personal safety issues

Question 47

discuss the sector theory model

Answer 47

• designed by Homer Hoyt, 1939
• suggests that cities grew outwards in a sectorial pattern following lines of transportation or transects of high amenity land such as waterfronts, rivers or public open space, low income residential areas tend to be close to the CBD and near industrial sectors where land values are low.

Question 48

discuss 2 of the challenges facing urban Aus (housing and land abandonment)

Answer 48

-housing
due to a rapid growing population, urbanisation is occurring quicker putting a strain on urban areas/housing.
-The inability of an area to provide enough housing for a growing population results in shantytowns/slums. These are poorly built, low cost and illegal housing units found in LEDCs.
These slums are built on undesirable land resulting In hazard risks such as landslides or floods- often unplanned areas lack adequate infrastructure (roads, sewage, employment centres etc).
-In rio de janeiro, Brazil, 22% of the urban population live in slums or shantytowns known as favelas.

Land abandonment is when an urban land use is no longer active/operating- yet the infrastructure remains.When former industrial or residential areas are abandoned, invaded or transformed into newer, higher density residential, commercial and entertainment functions.
The urban rural fringe is a land use zone where former land uses are abandoned as the urban area sprawls.
-Urban blight and urban shadow effects are created due to abandonment.
Land abandonment results in squatters, higher crime rates and unsocial activities in these areas.
-In Detroit there are mass amounts of abandoned car assembly plants due to the collapse of the industry, 300,000 homes were abandoned and 700,000 left the city.

Question 49

discuss 2 of the challenges facing rural Aus (fifo work patterns and declining political influence)

Answer 49

• Economic restructuring refers to significant and enduring changes to the nature and structure of the economy. The switch to FIFO is more economically beneficial to the mining company as they don’t have to provide as much services.
• these rural towns have seen a loss in funding for these services, not as much sense of community, damaging the mental health of fifo workers and their families, communities become more remote as job losses cause an increase in the drift of social relations
• Birdsville in Queensland has seen a decline, in 1900 had 3 hotels, pop of 300, police station and other services whereas today has pop of 100, one hotel, visitor centre, museum and medical station.

Electorates depend on the population of an area not the size of it, meaning rural communities aren’t being heard in parliament. not as many people live rural meaning their opinions are deemed less important. 100 years ago- 40% of the pop lived rural now its 2%

• -less of a voice for these rural communities to voice their concerns.
• -for the area of durack- (covers 1.6 million square kms, 87,500 residents)- there is only one member of parliament to voice for this area.

Question 50

what are ice cores

Answer 50

Ice cores are cylindrical layered ice that scientists can use to gather data on the past climate. Bubbles become trapped in the ice, capturing the gas concentration of the then current atmosphere, whilst the physical ice records other properties- records can span back to 800,000 years. The deeper the core, the older the ice is; as new layers form, the texture of the ice sitting at the top changes (for example, winter snow and summer snow have different textures), this helps scientists decipher information about the climate each year.

Question 51

how is ice core data collected

Answer 51

This information is obtained by using a special drill that bores into ice sheets, removing a cylindrical ice core. Depending on the size of the core, this is usually a strenuous process, involving multiple scientists and technicians having to set up camp for a long period of time.
There are 2 types of drills used; mechanical and thermal. A mechanical drill is a rotating pipe, with cutters at the end. When the drill barrel is rotated, the sharp cutters cut a circle around the ice to be cored until the barrel is filled with said ice core (the length of these cores that fill the barrel vary from 1 metre to 6). The leftover cuttings (chips) are transported to a chip chamber in the drill. The drill barrel is rotated by either physical force (hand auger), or with an electromechanical motor drive.
In contrast, thermal drills use a ring-shaped heating element to melt a circle around the ice to be cored, the melt water is then stored in a tank within the drill. Mechanical drills are best used to retrieve more sturdy cores from sites that are well-below freezing. Thermal drilling remains more effective in retrieving ice samples from ‘warmer’ ice sheets (eg ice over -10° C).

Question 52

how are ice cores analysed

Answer 52

Ice cores can also give scientists information on temperature, atmospheric composition, precipitation, wind patterns and volcanic activity.
The thickness of each layer determines how much snow has fallen in a year, as well as other factors such as melt layers. Melt layers help scientists understand seasonal changes in the ice core, as layers without bubbles indicate warmer summer temperatures.
Past greenhouse gases can be determined by investigating trapped air. When snow is compacted and turned to ice, air is trapped in bubbles, this process usually occurs 50-100m below surface. These bubbles are extracted via melting, crushing or grating the ice in a vacuum. Upon this physical force, the gas components within these bubbles are released and analysed. Records from this method of extracting can find carbon dioxide, methane and nitrous oxide traces dating back to 650,000 years ago.
Wind patterns are determined by taking ice cores from multiple locations within close proximity and seeing where past snow has drifted (due to thickness levels differentiating in varying locations).
Temperatures of past climates are found through chemical testing of the trapped air in the bubbles found in ice cores, as colder temperatures will lead to a higher concentration of oxygen isotope in the snow.
Volcanic activity is recorded through ash and dust that comes trapped within the layers of snow.

Question 53

discuss the evidence of ice cores

Answer 53

The most well known ice core that proves this is the Vostok ice core obtained by joint Russian, European and French scientists working at the Vostok station in Antartica- 1987. The team managed to drill a core that reached 3,190 metres deep, making it the longest core ever obtained, with records dating back to 800,000 years before present, the core also revealed 8 previous glacial cycles in its recordings. The Vostok ice core revealed that carbon dioxide levels were similar within each of the glacial cycles, it also displayed that CO2 levels have sky rocketed since the analysis.

Question 54

discuss the reliability of ice cores

Answer 54

Ice cores overall are a very reliable form of evidence for climate change as they provide information on temperatures, atmospheric composition, wind patterns and seasonal changes that can date back to 800,000 years, however they are not always 100% reliable depending on where they are sourced from. Older ice cores found in Greenland show that melting has caused carbon dioxide levels to rise, meaning for more accurate measurements of past carbon dioxide levels, cores from Antartica are more reliable as melting hasn’t occurred. As a whole, ice cores provide evidence for climate change as they show the global peaks and falls in weather patterns that have occured over the years.

Question 55

briefly describe the heat budget

Answer 55

The balance of incoming and outgoing heat on Earth is referred to as its heat budget. As with any budget, to maintain constant conditions the budget must be balanced so that the incoming heat equals the outgoing heat

Question 56

where does insolation go? (heat budget)

Answer 56

• 30% is reflected by;
• clouds 20%
• atmospheric particles 6%
• reflective surfaces like snow 4%

19% is absorbed by particles
51% passes through atmosphere and is absorbed by land/oceans

Question 57

what happens once heat is absorbed? (heat budget)

Answer 57

• re-radiated back into atmosphere via long wave radiation
• 23% released as latent heat
• 7% transmitted by convection and conduction
• 64% absorbed by atmosphere and clouds
• 6% radiated directly back through atmospheric window

Question 58

discuss the hydrological cycle:

Answer 58

refers to the continuous movement of water as a liquid, gas and solid throughout the land, oceans and atmosphere

• broken up into:
• EVAPORATION
• TRANSPIRATION
• CONDENSATION
• PRECIPITATION
• INFILTRATION
• RUN-OFF
• PLANTS

Question 59

how does the eat budget and hydrological cycle interact to influence the earths climate?

Answer 59

• EVAPORATION: energy from the heat budget is needed to initiate evaporation. water is transformed from a liquid to a gas by being heated by insolation, it rises, cools and condenses, forming water droplets that combine to form clouds and eventually precipitation
• TRANSPIRATION: energy from heat budget is needed for evap of water from pores in leaves of plants, adding to moisture in atmosphere which adds to precipitatio n
• OCEAN EVAPORATION: oceans along the equator and tropics absorb large amounts of insolation, creating warm ocean currents, allowing for greater amounts of evaporation and therefor precipitation
• CLOUDS: formation of clouds in the hydrological cycle impacts the amount of insolation immediately reflected back into space. they also absorb 3% of the insolation, playing an important role in the balancing the amount of heat energy in and out of the atmosphere
• CONDENSATION: when water vapour changes from gas to liquid. latent heat energy is released that had been stored from the evaporation process. this aids the heat budget with the transferral of heat energy from the earth back into space.
• RE-RADIATION: water vapour is a greenhouse gas and therefor aids the heat budget in the absorption and re-radiation of terrestrial radiation trying to leave the atmosphere, helping to keep the earths temp at a steady 15 degrees.

Question 60

Evaluate one approach to the management of land cover change with specific reference to restoration and rehabilitation

Answer 60

ALCOA

As mining sites expand and move into new areas, more land becomes subject to land cover change. Depending on government policies and legislations, sometimes these areas of land are left and remain barren, however it is encouraged that restoration and rehabilitation processes must occur.
In Western Australia, it is a legal obligation for mining companies to restore their mine sites to their natural state, this is where alcoa comes in.
Restoration and rehabilitation are vital in maintaining a long term sustainable environment for native flora and fauna.
Alcoa is a mining company with its main objective being to restore 100% of a species richness in the native forest, after the site is no longer being used.
There are multiple processes taken to ensure the sustainability of native forests after mining has stopped, these include landscaping, pre-ripping, soil return, final contour ripping and seeding, recalcitrant planting, fertilisation, reducing dieback and ongoing monitoring.
LANDSCAPING refers to the flattening and smoothing out of surfaces after mining has stopped in order to blend the site into surrounding landscapes. Large logs and boulders that were removed prior are returned in order to create fauna habitats. Drainage is also created in order to allow for more natural water flow.
PRE-RIPPING occurs when the soil at the bottom off the mine site that was compacted during the mining of bauxite is broken up. The soil is broken up to ensure plants can grow.
The soil from the overburden and topsoil layer that was stockpiled when the mine was created is returned to the land. This same topsoil and overburden is then ripped to a minimum depth of 0.8 metres to increase water storage capacity. Mounds are made to minimalist soil erosion, native mixed soil is also added to the exisiting soil, and all flora re-introduced is the same as native vegetation. This process is known as FINAL CONTOUR RIPPING AND SEEDING and is done in order to maintain future sustainability.
RECALCITRANT PLANTING refers to planting plant species that re-sprout instead of growing from seed. This includes grasses and sedges that are grown from cuttings in a nursery and are then hand-planted.
FERTILISATION occurs when a single application of fertiliser (containing nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium and micronutrients) is applied in august via helicopter to promote growth of seedlings.
DIEBACK also needs to be taken into account when referring to sustainability measures. Dieback is a fungal disease that thrives in these jarrah forests, the pathogen feeds upon the roots of plants, causing the roots to die, this has a cascade effect as the outer branches of the plant then begin to die. This fungus is present in the soil of deceased areas and is transferred when people or objects trample through it- spreading it to unaffected areas. A way to combat this disease that is being implemented is by thoroughly washing all vehicles before they enter a mining district. Dieback also spreads through moisture flow in surface run-off and groundwater, to avoid this, channels are dug to restrict water flow from mine sites and tracks. Dieback-resistant plants were also briefly planted, although they did work at reducing the disease- because the plant was non-native it didn’t encourage the return of native wildlife.
ONGOING MONITORING is the final and probably most important step in ensuring sustainability. In March, 9 months after rehabilitation has occured, the area is surveyed to assess the success of the rehabilitation and to identify the areas where re-work will be required.

Question 61

NYCs demographics

Answer 61

• 8.5 million
• socio-economics split up into boroughs. the very wealthy don’t commute- driving their own vehicles
• jamaica= poor commute via transit
• Manhattan and Brooklyn wealthy commute via foot or public transit
• staten islands pop is smaller, wealthier and older- predominantly white due to location being unfavourable to immigrants

Question 62

challenge in NYC: congestion

Answer 62

• due to underinvestment the last 50 years
• each weekday there are 3.6 million round trips, traffic moves less than 20km an hour on a good note, less than 5% of the pop drive to work.
• most of NYs expressways were built in dense urban areas where there is no room to expand, eg the Lincoln Tunnel, with a max of 3 lanes
• manhattans small neighbourhoods can’t accommodate large flows of traffic
• the George Washington bridge is the only bridge connecting New Jersey and Manhattan
• ENVIRONMENTALLY: high car usage results in emissions, in NYC, transport is responsible for 25% of pollution. as pop increases more spaces are required to build roads and expressways meaning natural cover is used limiting albedo.
• ECONOMICALLY: time spent in traffic is non-productive and costly. economic costs of traffic are estimated to add to $1.9 billion to the cost of doing business and $6 billion lost in time and productivity. traffic congestion can divert funds from more productive forms of urban redevelopment.
• SOCIALLY: an hour a day spent commuting. less time to socialise, recharge and maintain productivity. traffic congestion also creates excessive noise pollution and leads to respiratory health issues due to fumes.
• ONENYC aims to reduce traffic in Manhattan through
• introducing congestion pricing- funds for essential subway repairs enhancements, while dramatically improving bus service through expanded and improved bus lanes, and signal improvements in the streets to prioritise buses
• reclaiming streets to the needs of the public- by creating people priority zones that restrict vehicular access, create public spaces, improve safety, reduce congestion and improve air quality
• commiting to carbon neutrality by 2050- by cuts in gg emissions from buildings and sourcing 100% clean electricity whilst creating green jobs and holding polluters responsible for climate-related costs
• leading by example on climate change: end purchase of single-use plastic food ware and phasing out the purchasing of processed meat, pursuing mandatory organics collection citywide

Question 63

explain congestion charging:

Answer 63

• congestion pricing is an effective method to manage demand on busy city streets, and will also generate great revenue
• introduced in London in 2003 to opposition from the public
• operates from 7am to 10pm-by 2018, traffic 25% lower than in 2008
• introduced into Stockholm 2007, reduction in traffic
• part of One NYC 2050
• due to be implemented beginning of 2021, although congestion fees of a type were introduced in February 2019
• fees of $2.50 for yellow taxis, and $2.75 for uber and other ride-hail services, were added to every ride that starts, ends or passes through Manhattan south of 96th street.
• first American city to introduce it. Aim- to reduce traffic congestion and earn revenue to fund subway modernisation
• a congestion zone will be drawn around Manhattan from 60th street south to the battery
• the fee will be charged electronically, most likely through an expansion of the E-Z pass system used for cashless tolling at bridges and tunnels
• the fees will likely not be set until next year, but likely to be $11 to $14 for cars and around $25 for trucks during prime business hours, and less at night and on weekends.
• about 80% of revenue from congestion pricing fees will go toward city transit improvements, including new signals on subway lines, at least 150 miles of track work, and thousands of new subway cars and electric buses, according to the transportation authority.
• an additional 10% will go to each of the 2 major suburban commuter trains operated by the authority, the long island rail road and metro-north. It is expected to pay for a significant expansion of the long island rail road, four new metro-north stations in the bronx, hundred of new electric diesel rail cars and locomotives.
• social benefits: avoiding traffic congestion makes people less stressed, reduce costs for businesses as less time in traffic, makes city centres more attractive to tourists increasing the quality of life, reduces journey time
• economic benefits: provides millions back to the economy to be spent on more infrastructure or roadworks or public transport
• environmental benefits: less people encouraged to drive- encouraging cyclists which means less emissions, reduces journey time meaning less emissions

Question 64

what are map projections? what are the 3 types and problems associated with them

Answer 64

in cartography a map projection is a map projection is a way to flatten a globes surface into a 2d format, because of the transferral there will be a degree of distortion.

• a cylindrical projection for example is the mercator map- there is a degree of distortion of the area and size of the countries. however it was beneficial for mapping and getting directions.
• A Lambert conformal conic projection is a conic map projection used for aeronautical charts, portions of the State Plane Coordinate System, and many national and regional mapping systems. generally not well-suited for mapping very large areas. They are more suitable for mapping continental and regional areas.
• The azimuthal equidistant projection preserves both distance and direction from the central point. The world is projected onto a flat surface from any point on the globe. Distortions are greatest along the rim of the hemisphere where distances and land masses are compressed.

Question 65

what is a natural biome?

Answer 65

A natural biome is a community of life forms adapted to a large natural area. They may cover a region made up of several ecosystems and refer to the biotic or living components of that region. There is no obvious or direct human interaction with the biome.

Question 66

Outline and evaluate a programme that addressees the impacts of land cover change, giving consideration to its environmental, economic and social benefits and costs

Answer 66

Western shield is the department of parks and wildlife’s lead animal protection/conservation program. The programs purpose is to protect the population of WA’s threatened native animals via controlling feral foxes and cats through baiting. Native animal biodiversity is said to increase through the controlling of non-native predators via baiting over a 3.9 million hectare region. Each year more than 900,000 baits are placed within reserves. There is also a captive breeding program to ensure conservation of a species.

The social benefits to this program include that it provides multiple jobs with urban and rural areas- including administrative work, wildlife managers, and pilots that manage feral animals, this in turn also ensures that less feral pests will enter urban areas- protecting communities and their pets. The baits that are used are always dropped more than 50 metres away from major pathways to ensure the protection of local communities/animals as ingesting it is lethal. Socially the costs are that there are some moral concerns that the 1080 poison used is inhumane as it can take several hours to actually cause death.

The main environmental benefits of this program are that it will help to restore the natural biodiversity of native flora and fauna through the removal of pests. Through this program, 18 species have been protected all the while decreasing the feral cat population by 90%. It is predicted that without western shield- 11 different species would be extinct today, 7 species disappearing and 30 declining. The protection of species is not only beneficial to the biodiversity but to the ecosystem too, for example woylies turn over soil looking for fungi- individually turning over 5 tonnes of soil per year. Therefore an increase in the number of woylies= better quality soil. The 1080 bait has no harmful effects to the majority of native animals and breaks down quickly into non-toxic-by-products. The environmental costs that come with the western shield program include that not all native animals have been exposed to the re-occurring poison-thus there is a possibility that 1080 will effect them as they are not tolerant. The poison also remains in the animals decomposing bodies if they have ingested it- meaning possible harm to other animals that ingest this. Another cost is that not all native animals can breed in captivity.

Economically- 1080 poison is the only cost effective control method for large areas of land compared to alternative methods such as hunting, trapping and ground baiting. The costs for the current baiting program also far outweigh the cost of future restoration programs that would have to be enforced if the western shield was not in place. The cost of captive breeding has also decreased, for example the cost to breed numbats has dropped from $16,300 to less than $9,000. another economic win is that volunteers work for the company- allowing for up to 80 hours of work per week. The cost to fund western shield is solely reliant on government funding- including the cost of baits ($650,000 per year), employees, captive breeding programs and overall monitoring.

Question 67

Examine two adaptation strategies designed to change/modify the negative effects of global climate change.

Answer 67

Adaptations are when humans make changes or adjustments in response to a altered environment. Climate change is creating new environmental conditions that humans will have to adapt to including increasing temperatures, rainfall, rising sea levels etc.

Dams and reservoirs are used in areas that are projected to see an increase in rainfall amounts in order to benefit from the changing climate. Dams and reservoirs were built on the ord river in kununurra, western australia due to the increase in rainfall during the wet seasons and the heat ridden, dry terrain during dry seasons. Prior to the dams 90% of rainfall was drained into the timor sea, gulf of carpentaria and the coral sea rather than being used. In order to create sustainability for crops and agriculture during the dry seasons, these reservoirs have been built to ensure the rainfall collected is used responsibly.

Genetically modified crops are currently being used in the south west of western australia due to their predicted decrease in rainfall and rise in temperatures. Genetic modification is when individual genes with specific traits are transferred from one organism to another, GM plants mean that crops are alterered to make them more resistant to certain pests, insects and diseases, heat-tolerant, drought-tolerant, salt-tolerant, sturdy enough o withstand weather extremties. Current GM crops include wheat, rice, canola, squash, barley, potato, soybean, cotton and maize. Within africa they have developed drought-resistant maize which is predicted to boost harvest by 10-35%. In asia dought-tolerant rice has also been made that can withstand no water for 12 days. In australia, drought tolerant species of wheat and barkley are being trialled , they do not require as much water and they are quicker to mature and more resistant to diseases.

Adapting building codes is also an efficient measure to minimse the effects of climate change. Due to climate change rising sea levels are becoming an issue, in the event of a natural disaster (earthquake, tsunami, flooding etc) we need our buildings to be adapted to these possibilities. An example of this is the buildings in japan that have been designed specifically to withstand the harrowing effects of a tsunami/quake. This is important to do in order to minimise the aftermath of one of these catastrophic events.