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PH 681 - Environmental Health > Final Exam: Zoonotic & Vector-Borne Diseases > Flashcards

Final Exam: Zoonotic & Vector-Borne Diseases Flashcards

1
Q

Air quality

A

Many European cities do not meet WHO air quality standards for at least one pollutant

In US, about 1/3 of population lives in areas that do not meet US air quality standards

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2
Q

Zoonosis

A

An infection or infectious disease transmissible under natural conditions from vertebrate animals to humans

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3
Q

4 Transmission models of zoonosis

A
  1. Contact with skin
  2. Bite/scratch from animals
  3. Direct inhalation/ingestion
  4. Bite from arthropod (fleas, ticks, other insects) vector
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4
Q

Vector

A

An insect or living carrier that transports an infectious agent from an infected individual or its wastes to a susceptible individual or its food or immediate surroundings

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5
Q

What are (2) examples of vectors?

A
  1. Various species of rodents (rats and mice)

2. Arthropoda (mosquitoes, ticks, sand flies, biting midges)

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6
Q

What are (4) major causes of vector-borne diseases in the US?

A
  1. Humanity’s encroachment (deforestation) - changes in biodiversity due to ecosystem changes
  2. Easy travel worldwide
  3. Illegal importation of animals (quarantine)
  4. New immigrants from endemic areas
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7
Q

Name (5) common vector-borne diseases

A
  1. Malaria
  2. Leishmaniasis
  3. Plague
  4. Lyme disease
  5. Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever
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8
Q

MALARIA
Disease found in more than (a) countries, with more than (b)% of the world’s population at risk

Endemic regions include (c), (d), (e), (f), (g), and (h)

Annual death toll for malaria is nearly (i) persons

A

MALARIA
Disease found in more than (100) countries, with more than (40)% of the world’s population at risk

Endemic regions include (Central and South America), (Africa), (India), (Southeast Asia), (Middle East), and (Oceania)

Annual death toll for malaria is nearly (1 million) persons

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9
Q

Describe the global distribution of malaria

A

Southern regions (Africa, Middle East, South America)
Summer
Warmer locations

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10
Q

What are (4) infectious agents of malaria?

A
  1. Plasmodium vivax
  2. Plasmodium falciparum (most deadly)
  3. Plasmodium malariae
  4. Plasmodium ovale
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11
Q

The Cost of Malaria
Global direct economic costs incurred by malaria are estimated to be $(a) US annually

Some indirect costs include (b), (c), and (d)

Direct costs include those for (e) (e.g., medicine, hospitalization and pesticide use)

A

The Cost of Malaria
Global direct economic costs incurred by malaria are estimated to be $(12 billion) US annually

Some indirect costs include (lost productivity), (lost earnings), and (negative impacts on travel and tourism)

Direct costs include those for (treatment and prevention of disease) (e.g., medicine, hospitalization and pesticide use)

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12
Q 
MALARIA TRANSMISSION
Transmitted through (a) that carries (b)

Transmission involves the complex life cycle of mosquitoes, the (c) and (d)

Name the (3) stages of malaria transmission

A 
MALARIA TRANSMISSION
Transmitted through (the bite of an infected mosquito) that carries (a unicellular parasite: plasmodium)

Transmission involves the complex life cycle of mosquitoes, the (vector) and (human hosts)

Name the (3) stages of malaria transmission:

  1. Liver stages (exo-erythrocytic cycle)
  2. Blood stages (erythrocyctic cycle)
  3. Mosquito stages (sporogenic cycle)
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13
Q 
What can be done to control malaria?
During the (a), malaria was completely eliminated in many countries due to the use of (b), mainly (c)

Describe this compound

A 
What can be done to control malaria?
During the (mid 20th century), malaria was completely eliminated in many countries due to the use of (pesticides), mainly (DDT, Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane)

Describe this compound

  • Thought to be harmful to wildlife, outdoor spraying of DDT was discontinued in many developed countries
  • Has great effect to combat Mosquitos and Arthropods
  • Can cause cancers; banned in 1970s
  • Some countries now permit spraying of DDT inside homes
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14
Q

MALARIA TREATMENT
(a) guidelines for clinicians
Name 5 common drugs used to treat malaria

A 
MALARIA TREATMENT 
(CDC) guidelines for clinicians
Name 5 common drugs used to treat malaria
1. Chloroquine
2. Atovaquone-proguanil
3. Artemether-lumefantrine 
4. Mefloquine
5. Quinine
6. Doxycycline 
7. Clindamycin
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15
Q

LEISHMANIASIS

What is cutaneous leishmaniasis caused by?

A

Obligate (requires host) intracellular Protozoa of the genus Leishmania

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16
Q

LEISHMANIASIS
The reservoir for the cutaneous form of leishmaniasis consists of various species of (a)

The disease is transmitted from the reservoir to the human host by a (b) known as the (c)

What are the (2) common forms of leishmaniasis?

A

LEISHMANIASIS
The reservoir for the cutaneous form of leishmaniasis consists of various species of (rodents)

The disease is transmitted from the reservoir to the human host by a (sand fly) known as the (phlebotomist fly)

What are the (2) common forms of leishmaniasis?

  1. Cutaneous leishmaniasis
  2. Visceral leishmaniasis
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17
Q

LEISHMANIASIS
Endemic in a total of (a) countries with (b) cases each year

Most of the affected countries are in the (c) and (d)

Settings of leishmaniasis range from (e) to (f)

(g) new visceral cases/year mainly in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sudan, and Brazil (> 90%)

A

LEISHMANIASIS
Endemic in a total of (88) countries with (2 million) cases each year

Most of the affected countries are in the (tropics) and (subtropics), warm climates

Settings of leishmaniasis range from (rain forests in Central and South America) to (deserts in West Asia)

(500,000) new visceral cases/year mainly in India, Bangladesh, Nepal, Sudan, and Brazil (> 90%)

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18
Q

Name (4) factors that have contributed to an increase in the incidence of leishmaniasis

A
  1. Movement of human population into endemic areas
  2. Increased urbanization
  3. Extension of agricultural projects into endemic areas
  4. Climate changes due to global warming
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19
Q

LEISHMANIASIS TREATMENT

In addition to CDC guidelines for clinicians, what are (3) drugs that can be used to treat leishmaniasis?

A
  1. Amphotericin
  2. Miltefosine
  3. Pentavalent antimony compounds
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20
Q

PLAGUE
(a) is the infectious agent for plague, a condition that affects both animals and humans

Transmitted by the bite of a (b) harbored by (c)

Enters through the (d) and travels through the (e)

Historians believe that the plague epidemic during the Middle Ages was caused by (f)

A

PLAGUE
(Yersinia pestis) is the infectious agent for plague, a condition that affects both animals and humans

Transmitted by the bite of a (flea) harbored by (rodents)

Enters through the (skin) and travels through the (lymphatics)

Historians believe that the plague epidemic during the Middle Ages was caused by (fleas from infested rats)

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21
Q

THE BLACK DEATH
Also known as the (a)

A devastating pandemic that first struck Europe in the mid-late-14th century

Almost simultaneous epidemics occurred across large portions of (b) and (c) during the same period, indicating that the European outbreak was part of a (d)

Including Middle Eastern lands, India and China, the Black Death killed at least (e)

A

THE BLACK DEATH
Also known as the (Black Plague)

A devastating pandemic that first struck Europe in the mid-late-14th century

Almost simultaneous epidemics occurred across large portions of (Asia) and (the Middle East) during the same period, indicating that the European outbreak was part of a (multi-regional pandemic)

Including Middle Eastern lands, India and China, the Black Death killed at least (75 million people)

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22
Q

What are (2) manifestations of the bubonic plague?

A
  1. Septicemic plague (infection of the blood; bacteria enter bloodstream rather than the lymph or lungs)
  2. Pneumonic plague (when bacteria spread to lungs; highly communicable via droplets emitted when coughing or sneezing)
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23
Q

WHO estimates (a) infections worldwide each year

Only (b) cases in (c) regions of the US

South America: (3) regions
South Africa: (3) regions
Asia: (4) regions

A

WHO estimates (2,000-3,000) infections worldwide each year

Only (1-15) cases in (Western) regions of the US

South America: (Brazil, Bolivia, Peru)

South Africa: (Namibia, Angola, Mauritania)

Asia: (India, China, Mongolia, Kazakhstan)

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24
Q

PLAGUE AS A BIOLOGICAL WEAPON
Widespread availability of Y. pestis in (a) around the world

Widespread (b) availability of Y. pestis bacteria in (c) areas

Readily available techniques for (d) of Y. pestis

The (e) of pneumonic plague in untreated cases is extremely high

Plague has the potential for secondary spread from (f) following an attack

Y. pestis has been disseminated in (g)

A

a. Microbe banks
b. Natural
c. Endemic
d. Mass production
e. Fatality rate
f. Person-to-person
g. Aerosol form

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25
Q

Plague has (a) dose

(b) strains of Y. pestis exist in nature

A

a. Low infectious dose

b. Antibiotic resistant strains

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26
Q

How is the plague treated?

A

Streptomycine

Gentamicin

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27
Q

How is the plague prevented?

A

Eliminate urban plague with SANITATION measures

Vaccines: NOT effective and with severe inflammatory reactions

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28
Q

LYME DISEASE

Condition identified in 1970s when a cluster of (a) cases occurred among children around the area of Lyme, Connecticut

A

a. Arthritis cases

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29
Q

What is the causative agent for Lyme disease?

When infected (a) bite human beings, the disease may be transmitted

A

SPIROCHETE BACTERIUM known as Borrelia burgdorferi

a. Deer ticks

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30
Q

LYME DISEASE
Where is it reported?

What are the characteristics of their carriers?

A

Reported worldwide and throughout the US

Different ticks are carriers in different regions

Not all ticks are infected (2-90%)

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31
Q

What type of animals can be vectors of lyme disease?

A

Sylvatic rodents can be vectors of Lyme disease

32
Q

When and where is Lyme disease most prevalent in the US?

A

During the summer (June-July) across the North Eastern states

33
Q

What can be used to treat Lyme disease?

A
  1. Doxycycline
  2. Amoxicillin
  3. Penicillin/Ceftriaxone (IV)
34
Q

How can Lyme disease be prevented?

A
  1. Avoid tick-infected areas
  2. Wear light-colored clothes
  3. Wear hat and long-sleeved shirts
  4. Walk in center of roads
35
Q

ROCKY MOUNTAIN SPOTTED FEVER (RMSF)

What type of disease is this condition?

A

Tick-borne disease

36
Q

What is the causal (i.e., etiological) agent of Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever?

A

Rickettsia rickettsii, a rickettsial agent

37
Q

How is Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever transmitted?

A

Transmitted to humans by bite of infected tick species

38
Q

What is the characteristic symptom of RMSF?

Name some other symptoms.

A

Petechial rash; induced hemorrhagic rash

Fever, headache, nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, muscle pain, lack of appetite, conjunctival infection

39
Q

What are some RMSF vectors?

A

American dog ticks

Rocky Mountain wood ticks

40
Q

RMSF
Initially reported in 1896 as (a) and reported in 1930s from other parts of US

Most severe and most frequently reported (b) illness in US

Diagnosed throughout the (c)

About (d) cases per year in US; mostly (e)

Case fatality rate up to (f)% among untreated patients

Transmitted by (g)

A

RMSF

a. “Black measles”
b. Rickettsial
c. Americas
d. 500-600 cases
e. Children
f. 25%
g. Bite of infected tick

41
Q

How is RMSF controlled?

A
  1. Treatment with antibiotics (doxycycline)
  2. Prevention by avoiding areas
  3. NO VACCINE is currently available
42
Q

What are arthropod-borne viral diseases?

A

aka ARBOVIRAL diseases

A group of viral diseases that are most frequently acquired when blood-feeding arthropod vectors infect a human host

43
Q

What are some vectors that transmit arboviruses?

A

Ticks, sandflies, biting midges, and mosquitoes

44
Q

Name (3) ALPHAviruses

A
  1. Eastern Equine encephalitis
  2. Western Equine encephalitis
  3. Venezuelan Equine encephalitis
45
Q

The (a) family belong to group IV of Baltimore classification. The genome is (b) that is 10,000-12,000 nucleotides long.

This family encompasses which arboviruses?

A

a. Togaviridae
b. Linear, single-stranded, positive sense RNA

Alphavirus:
Eastern equine encephalitis virus, Western equine encephalitis virus, Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus

Rubivirus: Rubella virus

46
Q

Name (5) FLAVIviruses

A
  1. St. Louis encephalitis
  2. Japanese encephalitis
  3. Yellow fever
  4. West Nile virus
  5. Dengue
47
Q

How are flaviviruses transmitted?

A

Transmitted by the bite from an infected arthropod

48
Q

Name (3) BUNYAviruses

A
  1. LaCrosse encephalitis
  2. Reoviruses
  3. Colorado tick fever
49
Q

What are (3) types of ARBOviruses?

A
  1. Alphaviruses
  2. Flaviviruses
  3. Bunyaviruses
50
Q

Bunyaviridae are (a). With the exception of Hantaviruses, transmission occurs via (b).

Hantaviruses are transmitted through contact with (c)

Incidence of infection is closely linked to (d)

A

a. Vector-borne viruses
b. Arthropod vector (mosquitos, ticks, sandflies)

c. Deer mice feces
d. Vector activity (e.g., mosquito-borne viruses are more common in summer)

51
Q

ARTHROPODS
Belong to the phylum (a)

What is the largest class of arthropods?

Also includes (b)

A

a. Arthropoda

Insects = largest class of arthropods

b. Arachnids

52
Q

List (4) main clinical symptoms of arboviral disease

A
  1. Acute central nervous system illness
  2. Acute benign fevers of short duration, with and without an exanthum (rash)
  3. Hemorrhagic fevers
  4. Polyarthritis and rash, with or without fever and of variable duration
53
Q

ARTHROPOD-BORNE VIRAL HEMORRHAGIC FEVER (VHF)

What do viruses that cause VHFs require as a natural reservoir?

A

An ANIMAL HOST or INSECT HOST (arthropod vector)

54
Q

What are some examples of animal host reservoirs?

A

RODENTS (e.g., cotton rat, deer mouse, and house mouse)

55
Q

Viruses are limited to those (a) in which (b) reside

A

a. Geographic areas

b. Host species

56
Q

What are some examples of VHF mosquito-borne viruses in humans?

A

Mosquito-borne viruses

  1. Dengue virus
  2. Yellow Fever virus
  3. Rift Valley Fever virus
57
Q

What are some examples of VHF tick-borne viruses in humans?

A

Tick-borne viruses

  1. Omsk hemorrhagic fever virus
  2. Kyasanur Forest disease virus
58
Q

What are some examples of VHF rodent-borne viruses in humans?

A

Rodent-borne viruses

  1. Junin virus
  2. Korean hemorrhagic fever virus
  3. Lassa fever virus
59
Q

ARBOVIRAL ENCEPHALITIDES

Caused by a virus that produces (a) of what (3) areas of the human body?

A

a. Acute inflammation
1. Sections of the brain
2. Spinal cord
3. Meninges

60
Q 
ARBOVIRAL ENCEPHALITIDES
Among the (a) agents are viruses associated with many forms of encephalitis, including (b) and (c)
A

a. Etiologic
1. St. Louis encephalitis
2. Western equine encephalitis

61
Q

How are arrival encephalitis transmitted?

A

Arboviral encephalitides are transmitted by: the bite of MOSQUITOES from the reservoir to a human host

62
Q

The reservoir for some forms of encephalitis viruses consists of what type of host?

A

Nonhuman vertebrate host

63
Q

What is the cost of arboviral encephalitides?

A

Cost of arboviral encephalitis is approximately $150 million per year, including vector control and surveillance activities

64
Q 
WEST NILE VIRUS (WNV)
Classified as (a), the etiologic agent is (b)

(c) are the carriers that become infected when they (d)

Health effects vary from (e)

A

a. Mosquito-borne arboviral disease
b. Flavivirus

c. Mosquitoes
d. Feed on infected birds

e. No symptoms to severe symptomatology

65
Q

Define EMERGING ZOONOSES

A

Zoonotic diseases that are caused by either apparently new agents or by known agents that occur in locales or species that previously did not appear to be affected by these known agents

66
Q

What are some factors associated with the rise of emerging zoonoses?

A
  1. Ecological changes that result from agricultural practices (e.g., deforestation, conversion of grasslands, and irrigation)
  2. Changes in the human population and human behavior (e.g., wars, migration, and urbanization)
67
Q

What are some contributing factors to the emergence of HANTAVIRUSES?

A
  1. Ecological/environmental changes

2. Increasing rodent contacts

68
Q

What are some contributing factors to the emergence of Escherichia coli O157:H7 (hemolytic-uremic syndrome)?

A

Mass food processing technology

Contamination of meat

69
Q

HANTAVIRUS PULMONARY SYNDROME (HPS)
What is the causative agent of HPS?

How is HPS transmitted?

What are the primary vectors of HPS?

A

Causative agent: hantavirus, part of viral family known as Bunyaviridae

Transmitted when aerosolized (airborne) urine and droppings from infected rodents are inhaled

Primary vectors are (4) species of rodents:
Cotton rat, rice rat, white-footed mouse, and deer mouse

70
Q

What is the main host for the hantavirus?

A

Deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), found throughout North America

71
Q

DENGUE FEVER
What is the causative agent of Dengue fever?

What is the vector for transmission?

Where in the world is it most prevalent?

A

Caused by flaviviruses

Vector for transmission: Aedes aegypti mosquito

Occurs primarily in tropical areas of the world (e.g., Southeast Asia, tropical Africa, and South America)

72
Q

Where in the US is there a higher risk for transmission of dengue and sporadic outbreaks?

A

Southern Texas and southeastern states

Epidemic dengue on Oahu occurred in 1943-1944

Virus may also be imported into US by travelers who are returning from endemic tropical areas

73
Q

How can mosquito-borne diseases be controlled?

A
  1. Drain standing water
  2. Sanitation (good solid waste management)
  3. Biological control (predatory fish and parasites)
  4. Repair window screens
  5. Wear repellents and protective clothing
  6. Chemicals (insecticides and larvacides)
74
Q

How can flies be controlled?

A
  1. Understand fly’s life cycle
  2. Eliminate breeding media (deny food sources and breeding areas)
  3. Sanitation (good solid waste management)
75
Q

How can fleas be controlled?

A
  1. Treat animals
  2. Disinfect building interiors
  3. Treat animal quarters
  4. Use specific insecticides (varies depending on type of animal affected; indoors/outdoors)
76
Q

How can rodents be controlled?

A
  1. Bait stations, glue boards
  2. Hygiene, sanitation
  3. Create an environment suitable for your health rather than the growth of pathogens

PH 681 - Environmental Health (2 decks)

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