Final exam woohoo Flashcards
1
Q
Learning
A
Any relatively permanent change in performance potential that is brought through experience
2
Q
Performance potential
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Learned how to do something but have not engaged in the behavior yet
3
Q
Types of learning
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Associative learning (classical conditioning and operant/instrumental learning) and Observational learning
4
Q
Associative learning
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basic form, occurs when an organism makes a connection/association between stimuli. Can be classical conditioning or operant/instrumental learning
5
Q
Observational learning
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Conscious and unconscious processes, learning by observing other people engage in behavior, more complex cognitive activity
6
Q
Classical Conditioning
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Animal is going to learn to associate 2 stimulate that repeatedly happen together
7
Q
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
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a stimulus that elicits a reflexive response in an organism, example: meat for doggos
8
Q
Unconditioned response (UCR)
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UCS naturally produces UCR, a natural or unlearned reaction to a given stimulus, example: salivation from meat
9
Q
Conditioned stimulus (CS)
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stimulus that elicits a response after being paired repeatedly with the UCS, initially produces no response, example: ringing bell
10
Q
Conditioned response (CR)
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The behavior caused by the CS, similar if not identical to UCS, example: salivation from the bell (CS)
11
Q
Habituation
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occurs when we learn not to respond to a stimulus that is presented repeatedly without change. As the stimulus occurs over and over we learn to not focus our attention on it
12
Q
Interstimulus interval
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Amount of time that elapses between CS and UCS. Should be pretty short, the longer, the less likely there will be an association
13
Q
Apparent contingency
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the occurrence of one stimulus seems to depend on the occurrence of another
14
Q
Delay conditioning
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Most effective, close together and simultaneous, close in time and overlap bc CS starts before UCS and end together, CS predicts UCS
15
Q
Trace conditioning
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2nd most effective, effectiveness depends on length of interstimulus, CS is before UCS and doesn’t overlap, CS predicts UCS
16
Q
Simultaneous and backward conditioning
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Least effective methods, not going to produce long lasting learning, backward is after the UCS and simultaneous CS is during UCS
17
Q
Stimulus generalization
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The tendency for the CS to evoke similar responses after the response has been conditioned. The more similar a stimulus is to the conditioned stimulus, the more likely the organism is to give the CR. Example: if the bell (CS) is similar in sound to the microwave, the microwave may make the dog salivate (CR)
18
Q
Generalization gradient
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Shows the relationship between the degree of change in the original conditioning stimulus and response strength. Strongest with the original CS, weakening of the response the further away you get from the original CS, adaptive to different stimuli
19
Q
Stimulus discrimination
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we try to get an individual to emit conditional response only in the presence of certain stimuli. Example: dog conditioned to hear the bell (CS) and no other noises to salivate (CR) so this discriminates against other noises
20
Q
Higher order conditioning
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When you pair a second CS with the initial CS in the absence of USC.
21
Q
Blocking
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When you pair a second CS so that it predicts USC. CS2 then CS1 then USC. Over a number of trials, turn on CS2, CS2 does not produce CR, CS2 provides no additional predictive value
22
Q
Extinction
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the decrease in CR when the USC is no longer presented with the CS. If you don’t bring food but still ring the bell, doggos become sad
23
Q
Spontaneous recovery
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the return of a previously extinguished CR following a rest period
24
Q
Operant/instrumental conditioning
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Associating 2 stimuli: behavior and its consequence (reinforcement or punishment). We learn to do things that bring about desired outcomes
25
Behaviorism and black box approach
only things we can study scientifically are the things we can only directly observe (no internal processes like cognition), all behavior is learned
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Thorndyke's law of effect
link an action to a pleasant experience, the organism is likely to repeat that action
27
Skinner's box paradigm
Special cage with a rat, food dish, lever
Rat will push lever down to give food pellet
Response (r) → reinforcing stimulus (sr)
Rat repeats action, eventually knows the lever equals food
28
Postitive reinforcement
occurrence of a stimulus increases the probability of a response in the future (subjectively pleasant), depends on who organism is. Example: you get a toy when you clean your room, best way to teach a person
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Negative reinforcement
sensation of a noxious stimulus increases probability of a response (disappearance of a negative stimulus). Taking an aspirin for a headache, putting a blanket on when you're cold.
30
Reinforcement vs. punishment
Reinforcement always increases the probability of response and produces desired outcome for organism. Punishment decreases the prob of response occurring in future, does so by making noxious stimulus occur
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Positive punishment
something added to decrease response (you get a scolding for texting in class)
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Negative punishment
something removed to decrease response (taking away a toy for being bad)
33
Primary reinforcements
stimuli that are innately reinforcing; satisfy basic physiological need (food, warmth, water, social acceptance)
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Secondary reinforcements
organism learned to value via classical conditioning (test grades, money)
35
Premack
reinforcer doesn't have to be actual stimulus. any activity can bring about another activity that is performed less frequently.
36
Reinforcement hierarchy
Top of the hierarchy are things most engaged in, low are low-performed activities. Example: you want to watch tv? do your homework (tv higher than hw). Any activity in a hierarchy can be used to reinforce activities lower in the hierarchy, can be reinforced by activities higher in hierarchy
37
Timing of reinforcing stimulus
reinforcement or punishment must occur in a short amount of time following response. If time delay learning is slow if at all.
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Superstitious behavior
person engages in string of irrelevant behavior because they think that's what is reinforcing the behavior
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Reinforcing stimulus
what is used as reinforcing stimulus must be reinforcing- what is used as a reinforcer must be reinforcing (we must be cognizant of what is reinforcing to some isn't for others, how do we know what is going to be reinforcing beforehand?)
40
Consistency of delivery of reinforcing stimulus
we need to reinforce the response every time it occurs, produces most efficient learning. After conditioning is set in, we don't want to necessarily consistently reinforce behavior - we want to do partial reinforcement
41
Continuous reinforcement
every response that occurs is reinforced
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Partial reinforcement
reinforced only some of the time
43
Fixed interval schedule
passage of time between reinforced behaviors. Predetermined amount of time must elapse before response is reinforced (5 min, 10 min, 15 min...) Example: taking pills, getting paycheck. Moderate responses with big pauses after reinforcement
44
Variable interval schedule
Based on passage of time, interval between reinforced responses is varied (average intervals). Example: watching shooting stars, random drug test, checking Facebook. Moderate responses yet steady response rate (straight linear line)
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Fixed ratio schedule
Based on # of responses emitted, after x responses occurred, next responses reinforced (if ratio is 1/5 every 5th response is reinforced). Example: frequent flier program. High response rate with pauses after reinforcement
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Variable ratio schedule
of responses that have to be made, average # of responses that have to be made before reinforcement. On average every 5th response is rewarded. Example: slot machines and golf. High and steady response rate
47
Gambling
example of variable ratio schedule, Specifically, gambling may activate the reward centers of the brain, much like cocaine does. Some research suggests that pathological gamblers use gambling to compensate for abnormally low levels of the hormone norepinephrine, which is associated with stress and is secreted in moments of arousal and thrill
48
Shaping
rewarding successive approximations toward a target behavior
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Successive approx
we reinforce behaviors that are more and more similar to desired behavior
50
Timeout
form of negative punishment, recommend one min for each year of child's age. He or she is removed from a desirable activity in an effort to decrease the unwanted behavior present
51
Setting of reinforcement
there are environmental stimuli all around us, most behaviors are most likely to occur in the presence of some stimuli than in the presence of other stimuli (constance does't teach psych at home), Sd → R → Sr:
Discriminating stimulus → response → reinforcing stimulus
52
Discrimination training
we have to condition an animal to engage in behavior when discriminating stimulus is present but not when other stimulus is present
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Stimulus generalization
tendency to respond to similar stimuli (not having to relearn driving a car every time you enter)
54
Extinction
stop reinforcing behaviors. behaviors that are the easiest to extinguish are the ones being continuously reinforced - won't take long to realize the absence of reward. Fixed schedules: more difficult (not every response is rewarded, but they know about how long until next)
Variable schedules: difficult for animal to realize reinforcement has stopped (could be very long interval)
Simply removing reinforcement will stop behavior but could be hard
55
Dangers and difficulties in using punishments
- Punishment is often reinforcing to punisher
- It can have a generalized inhibitory effect
- Model for aggression
- Can be reinforcing to organism
- Doesn’t teach appropriate behaviors
56
Cognitive perspectives
go beyond simple associations to understand how organisms represent, store, and use info. How do we mentally represent past experiences?
57
Latent learning
learning that occurs but is not observable in behavior until there is a reason to demonstrate it
58
Cognitive maps
mental picture of the layout of the maze
59
Learning v performance
learning is a change in performance potential. We can go to new building knowing where it is without having a class there yet, problematic for behavioralists
60
Observational learning
process of watching others and then imitating what they do
61
Vicarious reinforcement
individual is not reinforced, see someone else getting reinforced and get the message
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Components to observational learning process
attention, retention, reproduction of behavior, motivation
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Attention
individual has to pay attention to model's behavior
- -model characteristics: is the model competent at the behavior, social power, relationship of model to observer (parent than stranger)
- observer characteristics: extend to which observer perceives similarity to model, self esteem, interest in activity
64
Retention
we have to store a mental representation of what we have witnessed in our memory. You might not have an occasion to engage in behavior for quite some time, store in memory and do later.
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Imaginal representation system
we store and retrieve a sensory image
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Verbal representation system
we translate what we see into verbal labels or words in essence instructions
- best encoding into memory with these
- if we ask children to talk about the model did they learn better than just watching the model
67
Reproduction of behavior
convert mental images into our own overt behavior may not be easy (watching Tiger woods play golf). we can only achieve rough approx of model's behavior
68
Motivation
Unlikely to reproduce a behavior unless there is a motivated reason to do so, depends on whether you encounter a situation where the behavior would pay off, vicarious reinforcement affects motivation - if you see model reinforce we do behavior to get reinforcement
69
Effects of direct reinforcement
a lot of our learning we do via observational learning. does not mean that direct experience does not play a role in shaping behaviors. When you do engage in the observed behavior, your personal experience of reinforcement starts to determine likelihood of engaging in behavior again. Reinforcement helps with reproduction of behavior (getting feedback)
70
Encoding
acquisition of memorizing - converting incoming sensations in a form that can be stored as memory you at least temporarily store memories.
71
Automatic vs effortful encoding
sometimes encoding is effortful (studying) other times it automatic (no conscious effort). You need to remember what you ate for lunch temporarily so you don't get sick
72
Levels of processing memory
elaboration, visualization, self-referecning
73
Elaboration
creation of more and more associations between the new info and info already existing in memory. More associations, deeper processing
74
Visualization
very effective, thinking creatively about new info
75
Self-referencing
makes for better memory, explains why personally meaningful info is easier to commit to memory
76
Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Transfer and Storage Model
they view memory as a three stage process: sensory memory, STM/working memory, LTM
77
Sensory memory
- designed to hold an exact copy of a sensory experience
| - We hold the exact copy just long enough to locate and focus on important bits of information, transfer to next stage
78
Iconic memory
visual
79
echoic memory
auditory, we retain the echo of a sound for up to 4 sec
80
STM
only temporary storage, info fades away usually in less than 30 sec unless renewed (rehearsal), You can store it as sound, smell, taste, but humans transfer info as sounds whenever possible,
We tend to make errors with similar sounds for letters than shapes, Capacity of stm: limited in how much info it can retain at any given time (magic # of 7 +/- 2) 5-9 bits of info at one time
81
Memory displacement
when we get more than 5-9 bits of info the new bits push the old bits out
82
Internal interference
thinking about something else
83
External interference
something intrudes into consciousness
84
Chunking
recoding the info into chunks of info, we group the bits of info
85
Working memory
recently described version of STM, allows us to simply more than store info we PROCESS it: phonological loop (processing sounds), visuospatial sketchpad (mental images), episodic buffer (workplace for integrating and manipulating info from phonological loop and sketchpad and additional info from long term memory (tip for waiter)), central executive (manages and directs the above processes
86
LTM
needs to be kept for long periods of time not just more durable than STM
-Capacity: appears to be practically unlimited, vast amount of info. When trying to retrieve something we can’t skim contents (like stm), it has to be indexed in some way
87
Index
we need cues to retrieve the appropriate info, like a library system. These cues can be intentional (remember professor name) or unintentional (hearing song on radio and remembering event), whether intentional or unintentional it is relevant info. Being able to retrieve info is how info is encoded in long term info.
88
Encoding into LTM
Verbal code (where we in essence recode more concrete objects into words), imaginal code (storing info as a sensory image and smells too), motor code (representation of motor skills)
89
Subjective organization
tendency to impose our own personal organization on material and info (even random stuff) random lists we reorganize in a unique way
90
Explicit memory
info or knowledge that can be brought into consciousness and verbalized, intentional remembering
91
Episodic memory (part of explicit memory)
memory for events you have experienced (first date)
92
Semantic memory (part of explicit memory)
memory for general pieces of knowledge and facts
93
Implicit memory
holds memories that can’t be verbalized or are v hard to. They can be expressed behaviorally, doesn't require intentional remembering
94
Procedural memory (part of implicit memory)
memory of how to do things, how to play piano. Stored in motor code. Might involve some explicit memory when we are learning the skill, but when it is automatic it is procedural.
95
Classical conditioning (apart of implicit memory)
if i classically condition an eye blink with a tone but not consciously in memory, stored in implicit memory
96
Engram
memory trace in brain. there must be specific spots in the brain where memories are stored; we should be able to point to a spot in the brain if you cut it out memory is gone (research has failed to identify these, human memory is complicated) - bits of one memory can be stored in multiple places in brain
97
Frontal lobe
a) episodic memory (remembering events in explicit memory)
b) retrospective memory (remembering things from past)
c) prospective memory (remembering things you need to do in future)
98
Cerebellum
implicit memory (memory for procedures and classical conditioning)
99
Hippocampus
- H.M. (Henry Molaison) - brain surgery to release epileptic surgeries, after surgery his short term memory was relatively good and long term memory for experiences prior to surgery was good, couldn’t form new long term memories
- Important for memory consolidation → new info into long term memory
100
Medial temporal area
hippocampus and adjacent areas in brain - one of the first places affected by Alzheimer's ; these areas of the brain process the incoming info, store it, but memories are stored in other places in brain
101
Long term potentiation
long lasting change at synapse, involved pre and postsynaptic neuron. Enhanced communication between the 2. Relationship between neurons enhanced . Memories are encoded as long term potentiation in localized neural circuits in brain
102
Neurogenesis
we used to think that you have limited # of neurons, but in fact e do grow new neurons. Neurogenesis is correlated with enhanced learning. New neurons are more excitable than older ones therefore more easily enlisted in LTP. Age of neurons in LTM may have timecode--> older neurons older memories
103
2-part retrieval of memories
Recall: ability to reproduce the info on your own without cues
Recognition: ability to select previously learned info from an array of options
If you can recall you can do recognition. recognition not good substitute for recall
104
Serial position effect
recall for items on a list depend on where a particular item is in that list. the effect of encoding on memory
105
Recency effect
info @ the end of the list seems to be function of STM, Good at recalling items at the end of the list because they are still in short term memory. If there is a delay the recency effect disappears because it has been displaced from short term memory
106
Primacy effect
info presented earlier is more likely to be recalled than info recalled later due to greater rehearsal
107
Encoding specificity
when you learn something new you encode the info and contextual info too like where you were when you learned it, where it is on your notebook...Retrieval is best when retrieval cues tap into encoded textual info. More generally, encoding specificity can be seen in state dependent memory
108
Mood congruent effect
memory is better for info that is consistent with one's current mood. when you are happy it is easier to remember happy memories than sad memories
109
Spreading activation
semantic memory especially (bits of knowledge stored in LTM). retrieval of long term info is relatively quick and organization is key, related schemas become more accessible in memory
110
Schema
mental structure for organizing knowledge about something. A generic representation of a stimulus (thinking of generic computer keyboard). Networks of association (lots of schema, how they are organized). Some are strong and direct but others take lots of links. This is how our minds are organized.
111
Features of schemas
Features: specific elements/attributes of that thing that is being represented. bird's beak, wings, legs
Values: provide features with values. what info we need to look for, how to encode for it, hair brown, eyes blue..
default values: best guess at most likely value that the feature is. values that you assign to a feature when a value hasn't been specified in feature provided. If she rode to Richmond we assume she's in a car
112
Affecting encoding and retrieval process
Easier to store an event in memory - easier to understand and organize info
113
Errors in affecting encoding and retrieval process
a memory error might because to that you stored a default error that was incorrect. Additionally, we might not encode info that is inconsistent with schema
114
Intrusions
falsely remembered info, info that wasn’t present but is remembered as being present, false info is schema consistent, schema adds info that isn’t there. Brewer et al.: participants noted things that weren’t in researcher's office but in typical office
115
Reconstruction theory
we use our generic schemas to guide our recalled event. If we can remember few details of event we can use schema to construct rest of it. The longer time between event and recall of event the heavier we rely on schemas to help us remember
116
memory is what?
Malleable! Not like a picture
117
Eyewitness testimony
- generally poor
- intrusions and reconstructions: we remember things that are consistent with schemas and don't remember that aren't consistent
- physiological arousal: uses cognitive resources, we have limited cognitive resources. Arousal interferes with encoding
- Post-event events: can also introduce errors in retrieval of memory. How a question is asked influences memory
118
Recovered memories
- implanted memories
- Not recovered - false memories that have been created by well-intentioned therapists who have gone astray (leading questions, hypnosis)
- In lab researchers have placed recollections of substantial events in a participant - implanting memories
119
Forgetting
a loss of accessibility of previously stored info --> info is lost from memory (no longer stored) or when material is there but you can't retrieve it
120
Ebbinghaus' research
- how quickly do we forget things we have learned
| - 100% recollection immediately, but after 48 hours around 30% recollection
121
Bahrick's research
- memories can endure for years.
- Permastore
- Very well learned material is more likely to reach permastore
- Can't elaborate on nonsense syllables to things stored in memory. When material is meaningful you can
122
Decay theory
we forget simply because of the passage of time. When we learn something, physiological thing happens in brain, that change/memory fades over time unless it is reactivated. You can reactivate it by recalling that memory
- Sensory register and STM -good theory - doesn’t explain LTM as well, what you’re doing during that period of time it shouldn’t matter but it does.
- People who sleep have better recall than people who don’t. Distractions from other things can lead to different types of forgetting
123
Interference
other memories interfere with the retrieval of the particular memory you are trying to recall, especially if other memories are similar to the memory you are trying to recall (hypothalamus and hippocampus)
- interference is in STM and LTM
- -STM: incoming info is displacing existing info
- -LTM: memory is still theoretically there but you can't recall it, maybe you could recognize it
124
Proactive
interference created by memories that were stored prior to learning new info (remembering new zip code)
125
Retroactive
newer info gets in the way of remembering the old info (forgetting the old zip code)
126
Repression
- we unconsciously push an unpleasant memory or thought into our unconscious (if you experience a difficult event, without your awareness you would forget about it)
- Little evidence to support.
- Easy to remember + than - memory when everything is equal
127
Suppression
we are consciously trying to keep a memory out of our conscious awareness - tends to backfire and do opposite. People told not to think about white bear thought about it as much as the others.
128
Why can't we suppress
you have to half part of your mind on the lookout for the unwanted thought. When the deliberate thinking of something else breaks down, you think white bear. If you want to forget about something don’t suppress it.
129
Amnesia
permeant forgetting due to brain injury
130
Retrograde amnesia
memory loss for events that happened before the injury occurred. Sometimes the memory loss is just a few min before the injury occurred but could be a longer time
131
Anterograde amnesia
memory loss for events that happened after the injury, can't form new memories for new experiences. Due to surgical intervention, infection, alcohol
132
Method of Loci
Mnemonic, first commit to memory an ordered sequence of places that you are familiar with (walk around campus, start at Wren to sunken gardens…) you associate the first item on your list with the first place on your list. Form an image that associates the places in order (colonial people with beer at Wren, bread basket @ sunken gardens..)
133
Narrative chaining
Mnemonic, chaining together the items into a story
134
Acronyms
Mnemonic, using the first letters of the words on your list to create a words (HOMES for Great Lakes)
135
Acrostics
Mnemonic, First letters of keywords to create a sentence. Remember the sentence to use the letters to generate keywords
136
Elaboration
BEST mnemonic, more you use material the more you connect the material back to your memory and the more you remember it
137
Study of cognition
- Behaviorism has dominated psych. Sensory and perception systems provide an input channel like data entry. As the input comes in, the mind performs mental operations just as a computer’s hardware and software processes data.
- The transformed input remains in memory and is used to generate an output. That output is some sort of behavioral response → cognitive revolution in psych. It became clear that it was oversimplified.
- Computers do things much better than humans do; numerical calculations faster and with less errors, computers apply and follow rules very well with consistently and better accuracy. The input that computers get has been scrubbed by a human, human has removed ambiguity.
- Human brain and neurons can respond to ambiguous input and interpret it. Brain also has ability to glean and learn new rules (relationships and concepts) and can generalize this learning to novel situations. Human brain/mind chooses what software depending on nature of input
- AI - using human mind to create a better computer
138
Thought
use of symbols to mentally manipulate concepts and images. these symbols can be mental pics, numbers, language, but it is symbolic.
139
Problem solving
one kind of goal directed behavior. Our goal is to find an answer to some sort of obstacle or dilemma. Three steps in problem solving: preparation, production, evaluation
140
Preparation
1. formulating the problem(identify the important elements of the problem, what info is involved, what resources are available, often involves flexible or creative use of the elements of the problem. We run into a number of problems when we are preparing a problem)
2. functional fixedness ( the difficulty we have in seeing new uses for familiar objects)
3. irrelevant info (people think all the info surrounding the problem is useful in getting solution. Find relevant info first before thinking of solution.)
4. Unnecessary constraints (specifying all constraints without assuming constraints that don't exist - dot problem (going outside the dots))
141
Production
generating possible solutions
1.trial and error (trying possible solutions sequentially until you find the one that works, Can be effective when there are relatively few solutions to try out. More complex it is, more time consuming and impractical)
2.algorithms (Procedures that are guaranteed to lead to solutions, when properly applied they will lead to the correct solution
Formulas, instruction sets → organized trial and error, People can blindly follow rules without checking their appropriateness (area of right triangle but maybe it’s not a right triangle),
Can be time consuming
Don’t necessarily lead to a creative solution)
3.Mental set (Occurs when people persist when using a problem solving strategy that has worked in the past. When we repeatedly use a strategy we expect it to work again and overlook alternative approaches that may be easier)
142
Evaluation
now we have to choose the best solution. If a solution works and how well it works. Good problem solving solvers reevaluate solution to see if there are better options every once in awhile
143
Are experts better?
- it depends on how you define better. Experts are faster and more accurate during production, slower during prep
- -Production - faster
- -Preparation - slower, sorting out relevant info in problem (actual constraints)
144
How are experts different from novices?
- During prep, experts search and encode info differently from novices
- Chunk - taking lots of info and chunking into one bite on info, experts can look at a problem and encode it more easily into STM by chunking the problem into more manageable bits of info
- Problem solving behaviors become automatic for experts (require fewer cognitive resources and can occur with less effort), leaves cognitive capacity for rest of the problem
145
Decision making
evaluating alternatives and making choices among them, depends in part on how the question is asked and framed
146
Framing
- When the question is put in terms of possible gain, people tend to avoid risk and make relatively conservative decisions. However, when the question is in terms of loss, people are more willing to take risks to overcome the losses
- We aren’t afraid to take risks, we are afraid to lose
147
Additive strategies
list the attributes that each alternative have and rate the desirability of each option along that attribute
148
Weighted model
we rate each attribute on how important it is (team pat woohoo)
149
Subjective expected utility model (SEU)
the value of the outcome (or attribute) multiplied by the probability of its occurring
SEU = (value of outcome)*(prob of occurring)
150
Compensatory decision models
positive attributes can compensate for undesired attributes
151
Non-compensatory decision models
- do not allow for some attributes to account for others.
- Ex: elimination by attributes (gradually eliminating less attractive alternatives) evaluating them on each attribute sequentially
- Final alternative you end up with depends on order of attribute
- Best to consider the attributes in order of importance
152
What type of model to use
- If there are few options and few attributes we are more likely to use a compensatory model
- If there are many options and many attributes we are more likely to use a non compensatory model
153
Guiding principle/rule of thumb
mental shortcuts based on experience, you don’t consider all possibilities. Frequently used in decision making
154
Representative heuristic
basing the estimated possibility of an event on how similar it is on the typical prototype of the event. How similar is this instance to your prototype - picking a job for steve who is shy - accountant
155
Availability heuristic
we base our decisions on what relevant info is available in memory, judgements on probability based on ease at which examples of that come to mind (K L N R V - occur more frequently as first or third letter in words, easier to think of words that start with first letter than third letter, actually 2x more words at third letter)
156
Ignoring base rates
People are most likely to ignore base rates when thinking about themselves - underestimate the r
157
Conjunction fallacy
occurs when people estimate the odds of two uncertain events happening together, that those odds are greater than the odds of either of those events happening alone
158
Overestimating the improbable
overestimate the likely of dramatic and infrequent events, heavy media coverage (asthma kills more than tornadoes). Contributes to availability heuristic
159
Confirmation bias
anyone make an initial decision and seek out info that confirms that, don’t seek info that might disconfirm it (asking leading questions about the flu)
160
belief perseverance
our tendency to hang on to our beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. Once we’ve made a decision we don’t look for info that contradicts i, ignore that contradictory info
161
Language
The system of symbols that convey meaning - in that system there are rules for combining the symbols into an infinite variety of messages
162
Language is symbolic
we use sound and written symbols to represent objects, events, ideas… but these symbols are arbitrary
163
Language is meaningful
we agree to use certain symbols to mean certain things
164
Language is generative
we take a finite set of symbols and manipulate them to create an infinite variety of novel messages
165
Language is structured
there are rules that limit the ways we can combine the symbols
166
Phonemes
basic unit of sound in language. in english there are around 40-46
167
Morphemes
basic unit of meaning. include nouns, verbs, verb endings, suffix, prefix, rules regarding how to combine them
168
Syntax
system of rules that specify how the words can be arranged into phrases and sentences
169
Days after birth
we have undifferentiated crying - cry sounds the same regardless why infant is crying
170
10th day
the crying is differentiated - sounds different for different reasons and the differences are recognizable by parents
The infant has begun to vocalize at least 4 phonemes
171
4-8 weeks
infant is pretty good at distinguishing human voices from other voices
And beginning to differentiate similar sounding phonemes
172
6-8 weeks
babies are cooing (pleasure)
173
6 months
the physical structure of mouth changes
- Newborn has high roof of mouth, @ 6 months the roof drops down and makes it easier to speak
- Babbling develops - the combination of a constant and vowel
- Pitch changes when they’re good at babbling - higher pitch when around mom or when excited
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8 months
- Babbling takes on temporal characteristics of child’s native language, spending various amounts of time on various sounds
- Intonation patterns of native language, doesn’t mean anything but sounds like sentences and questions
175
1 year
- real words
- Begin naming things, they already have concepts for these things but begin to develop linguistic labels
- Overextensions occur - once we learn the label for one thing the child tends to incorrectly use it to label a wide range of objects (all men are daddy)
- More common in a child when trying to produce the words than in comprehension. They know other men aren’t daddy but just don’t have another word to describe other men
- holophrases: complete thought with one word
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18-24 months
When child starts off with simple affirmative statements - 2 word utterances that lack all grammatical rules/additives
Called Telegraphic speech (connie shoe)
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Post 18-24 months
- Language development really takes off,
- Words and morphemes added to vocabulary
- Learns syntax (grammatical rules)
- Learns to use negatives (no want peas)
- Overregularization - overextension with grammatical rules, incorrectly apply grammatical rules. When learns that past tense verbs end with -ed apply to all verbs
- Develop a vocabulary of 60,000 words
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Learning theories
we imitate what we hear so we learn through observational learning and language by reinforcement
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Criticism of learning theories
if that’s all there is to it, we talk like adults do in the very beginning. A pure learning approach cannot explain a child’s ability to learn new, never heard statements. Parents have a tendency to reinforce the accuracy of their children’s performance and tend to ignore grammatical errors
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Resolution of learning theories
observational learning and reinforcement accounts for some of language acquisition. Accounts why children of english speaking parents develop english
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Nativism
Noam Chomsky - argue that language is an emergent property that only humans have, we are born with the predisposition to acquire language. Predisposition isn’t in other species, that can communicate by not but language
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis
thought that one’s language determines the nature of your thought. His study compared English and Eskimo views of snow, argues English speakers have one word for snow but Eskimos have more, because of this Eskimos perceive snow differently than English speakers
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Critics of Linguistic relativity hypothesis
his conclusion was based on casual observation, they carelessly overestimated the # of words that Eskimos have for snow and underestimated for EnglishColor perception
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Color perception
some languages have a single color name that include blue and green, if a language doesn’t discriminate between blue and green, do the language speakers make that discrimination?
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Semantic slanting
Trying to shape the way someone thinks of something by carefully choosing words to create a specific emotional response (instead of anti-abortion → pro-life)
