Final Exam Test Bank Qs

Question 1

Population growth has been considered a source of pressure on the environment since the 18th century. Consider the work of Thomas Malthus, Garett Hardin, Paul Ehrlich. Summarize both why population growth was seen as a problem, and how each of these scholars thought it could / should be solved.

Answer 1

• Malthus, Harden, and Elrich all thought that the worlds population would one day exceed the Earth’s capacity. (1)
• overcapacity = Malthusian catastrophe where war and famine over lack of resources out destroy society (1)
  -Malthus: there ought to be regulations on birth rates to slow the population growth (1)
• Elrich: what Malthus said but we should target relatively higher pop growth in developing countries (1)
  -Hardin: what they said but birth rate out to be regulated at an individual level – “the right to breed will bring ruin to all” (1)

Question 2

Explain a global environmental problem that is an example of the Tragedy of the Commons. Your answer must briefly explain what is meant by the Tragedy of the Commons, explain what “the commons” is in your example (and why), how humans degrade the commons in your example, and how this problem evolved over time. Your answer should indicate some proposed solutions to the problem.

Answer 2

• Tragedy of the commons: unregulated access to finite resources will always result in that resource being depleted because individuals will maximize profit and disregard sustainability
• e.g., problem open seas with no fishing regulations = fish are depleted faster than they can reproduce = extinction and no one can utilize the resource anymore
• e.g., As tech increases and more countries send large fishing boats with massive nets, and evolution as the population increase needs more fish to feed them, the degradation happens at a much faster rate
  -e.g., solution: regulations on what type of fish (no endangered species), how many (allow them to find breeding partners), and what time of year (avoid breeding seasons) fisheries can catch fish in order to allow fish to reproduce (i.e restore the commons)

Question 3

How does economic globalization affect the environment? Please make sure your answer addresses both industrialized and developing nations.

Answer 3

• Economic globalization increases global trade which increases the economy (wealth) of both developing and industrialized countries
• How does wealth increase environmental effect: more wealth = more consumption = more pollution
• industrial: industrial agriculture, use of pesticides leads to major biodiversity loss
• Developing: outsourcing factories to developing countries reallocates the pollution to those countries which often do not have the same means of waste disposal as developed countries

Question 4

How does economic globalization affect poverty and inequality? Please make sure your answer addresses both industrialized and developing nations and provide examples.

Answer 4

-Globalization increases trade btw countries & increased trade = increase economy
- industrial: middle income jobs, ‘low skilled work ‘ such as automobile production outsourced to developing countries for cheaper labour. ‘High skilled’ work e.g., car sales remains in the country = increases economic inequality btw rural and urban areas
- developing: increase economy as more ppl have outsourced jobs, e.g., automobile production in Brazil but there is an economic disparity compared to industrial countries who keep ‘high skilled/high paying jobs’

Question 5

Globalization has been considered both the source of environmental problems, but also a potential avenue of solution to environmental problems. Explain how globalization can lead to more efficient resource use.

Answer 5

Globalization increases trade between countries. Increased trade is associated with technological development as countries share ideas and resources. Technological development leads to more efficient resource use because innovative ideas that utilize renewable resources are developed and spread faster. Examples of tech innovations that have led to more efficient resource use include things like wind turbines and solar pannels which utilize the earth’s renewable resources (sun and wind) to create energy. Long term, this reduces use on non-renewable resources (fossil fuels like coal and gas). Technological developments are happening all over the world all the time, one new example of a potential innovation that would increase the efficiency of solar energy is a spray on solar ‘panel’ called perovskites which could potentially be applied to any surface to produce energy from the sun!

Question 6

6. Globalization is associated with greater global co-operation. Using the example of the ozone hole, explain how global co-operation can work to solve a global environmental problem.

Answer 6

• The efforts of just one country, no matter how large their economy is often not enough to fix issues
• over half the ozone layer depleted due use of chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), increasing the risk of sun damage due to increased exposure to solar radiation
  -30 countries came together in 1987 and agreed to phase out the use of CFCs to allow the ozone the heal, signed the ‘Montreal protocol. Many countries joined after
  -successful because: globalization led to the best minds from all countries working together to solve a problem. Countries hold each other accountable
  – wouldn’t have occurred with just one country
  -ozone now: healed and not at risk

Question 7

The Club of Rome’s Limits to Growth warned of global catastrophe. Explain the causes of this impending catastrophe, when it was expected to occur, what the results of this catastrophe would be, and what we should do to avoid it.

Answer 7

• club of Rome proposed that if the world continued to increase pollution, industrialization, and resource depletion unchecked we would incur global catastrophe by early 21st century (2010-2030!)
• catastrophe = sudden collapse in industry and resources resulting in war, famine and mass death
  -solution = limiting causes and implementing regulations

Question 8

What were some key uses of DDT (dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane) and why was this insecticide ideally suited for birthing the environmental movement?

Answer 8

• what is DDT: insecticide in gardens and fields, also to control viruses spread by insects like malaria (mosquitos) and typhus.
• neg affects of DDT: bioaccumulation of toxins in bald eagles (iconic American sp) and other top predator animals
• worked because: measurable effect with clear cost and effect (bald eagles) made it easy for lay consumer to understand
• birth of environmental movement: increased information to consumers boycotting DDT and increased awareness of other environmental issues

Question 9

The 1960s US counterculture movement represented a rejection of the dominant system. Explain what this system was, and how the adherents of the counterculture responded to it.

Answer 9

• dominant system, capitalism: consumption, traditional family values, & wars
• youths called ‘hippies’ rejected this by ‘dropping out’ of society and adhering closer to a communist system by not working, communal living, and protesting war, and advocating for environmentalism, rejecting consumption
• hippies advocated to change the system and resulted in more relaxed standards and a public interest in increasing social services, and decreasing the focus on consumption which was prevalent at the time

Question 10

Provide the IPAT formula, including what each of I,P,A and T stand for. What are our options for reducing overall I? Address each variable in turn, and how we might ethically lower overall impact by decreasing this variable.

Answer 10

• I = P x A x T
  I = impact on the Earth
  P = population of Earth, large contributor
• Cant ethically reduce! Child limits are unethical and don’t work (china evidence)
  -infringes on bodily autonomy
  -BUT as a country develops its birth rate often declines
  A = affluence, the consumption of people
• Hard to enforce, people don’t want to give up comfy life and nice things
• But! The average Canadian uses 500,000 KWh of water/year versus 5,000 KWh for the average Pakistani
• Large gap that could potentially be closed
  T = technology
• the most promising one, no infringing on rights
• clean tech = more efficient resource use and decreased impact

Question 11

Clean Tech provides opportunities beyond decreasing environmental impact. Explain, using at least two examples, how clean (or cleaner) technology can also improve living conditions in developing countries.

Answer 11

• e.g., 1: India, who burns mostly coal for energy, set a goal for 1/3 of energy to be clean by 2030. As part of this they Switch to clean tech by increasing free electricity in the home in India with solar panels, could spend less time acquiring resources such as firewood for wood stoves and travel to charge things like phones, decreased cost of living, and increased general happiness. Especially in rural areas
• e.g., 2: Columbia public transportation system reform in 2000 increased efficiency on the road. Decreased traffic time and congestion. Provided 1500 jobs for Columbians!

Question 12

Explain the concept of “techno optimism”. Outline the core argument against techno-optimism.

Answer 12

• techno optimism is the thought that all the worlds problems (e.g., pollution) can be solved by more technological development or more efficient use of our current technology
• Jevons paradox describes the tendency for consumption to increase with increased tech efficiency
• directly opposes techno optimism
  -e.g., paradox: car consumption increased from the 1800s as tech increased because increased efficiency = decreased consumer cost.

Question 13

Food security is about more than just the world producing enough calories to feed everyone. Describe the current state of world food security?

Answer 13

• the world currently produces more than enough food to feed everyone. The WHO suggests each person requires 2,500 Kcals a day and currently all regions produce at least 2,500 kcals in cereals.
• This SHOULD be enough food for everyone but many areas experience the TRIPLE BURDEN OF MALNUTRITION
• triple burden: 1. Over 800 million ppl suffer from malnutrition 2. 2 billion ppl experience over nutrition 3. 2 billion ppl face micronutrient deficiency

Question 14

Agriculture has become increasingly incorporated into the globalized economic system in recent decades. Explain what is meant by a globalized food system. Outline the positive and negative impacts of a globalized food system for consumers and farmers in both the developed and developing world.

Answer 14

• globalized system = one where every country specializes in a crop and trades it for other crops they do not grow to give their residents a balanced diet instead of every country eating solely the food they grow
• industrial
  pro: more output = more profits for farmers (farmer), consumers can add ‘exotic’ food to their diet that they wouldn’t be able to eat without global food trade, e.g., pineapples (comsumer)
  Con: Monopolies on crops can increase prices for consumers (consumer) and family farms are often bought out by agrocorporations that can increase efficiency and outpuit (farmer)
• developing:
  Pro: more efficient tech = more food for people to eat (consumer), larger market = more buyers (farmers)
  Con: have less tech than industrial countries so can output less crop (farmers). Monocropping decreases the number of important cultural crops in residents diet (consumer)

Question 15

What is meant by the technology treadmill in agriculture? Explain the implications of treadmill using some of the examples discussed in class.

Answer 15

• What is technology treadmill: increased agro-tech = increased efficiency = increased output = product is less valuable = farmers make less money = farmers must purchase new tech = increased DEBTS
• example: farmer suicides in India. 1 farmer death every 8 hours due to inescapable debt

Question 16

There is strong evidence that agro-corporations have high levels of market concentration in the food system. Explain the main causes of this effect and outline some of the impacts for producers and consumers?

Answer 16

Agrocorporations have high levels of market concentration in the food system. This is because they expand their operations horizontally by buying out smaller agrocorporations and private producers (family farms), and vertically by integrating themselves with suppliers and retailers. This results in high concentration ratios (40-70%) which enable agrocorps to dictate how/what food is grown and ends up on the plate of consumers. The shape of the food system resembles an hourglass, with consumers on the bottom, producers on the top, and agrocorps in the middle where they control the trade and pricing of food. Producers, like small family are at risk of being bought by larger agrocorps that have the tech to produce food more efficiently. The consumers of this food could fall into food insecurity due to lack of diverse food choices as well as increased prices due to the tendency of agrocorps to monocrop, and the monopoly agrocorps have on the food market.

Question 17

What nutritional strategies do Big Food companies employ to respond to a rise in health-related problems associated with our diets? Explain with some examples discussed in class?

Answer 17

• market influence to increase support from consumers. E.g., NYC proposed pop ban (>16oz) in 2012 to reduce national obesity. Soda industry argues that people have free will to order whatever they want, “all calories lead to obesity”
• using terms from diet culture like to make food seem premium and healthy AND distract from other unhealthy aspects of the product:’ low/0% fat, low/0 cal, low sodium, super food, etc, vitamans, ‘real __’, organic’

Question 18

Explain how the international climate policy agenda influenced the rise of sustainable agriculture models? Support your answer using key global initiatives that have been implemented.

Answer 18

• the international climate policy agenda was the first policies intended to hold developed countries responsible for their relatively higher carbon output
• the UN Framework Convention on Climate change (UNCCC)
  -implement: clean development mechanism and voluntary carbon offset market and Intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs)
• also implement: world bank biocarbon fund which Has implemented 20 projects in 16 countries and
• increase sustainable agriculture bc reduces pollutants as the World bank biocarbon fund has sequestered 15 million tons of COS and 5 million tons CO2 avoided

Question 19

What are some equity implications of carbon offset markets in the context of developing country agriculture? Explain using examples that were discussed in class.

Answer 19

• kenya’s agriculture carbon offsetting program (KAC)
• implemented by World Bank and Sweden (gets carbon credits)
• use agroforestry (tree planting) to offset carbon production
  -criticisms: only wealthy farmers can afford to give up land, farmers only get 60% of profits despite doing all the -labor intensive- work ($2 USD/farmer)

Question 20

Describe some of the credibility concerns surrounding Climate Smart Agriculture?

Answer 20

• no measurable ways (meaningful criteria) to assess weather agriculture is climate smart so many big company’s can call themselves climate smart without changing anything
• big agrocorps care more about being palatable to consumers to make money than actually being good for the environment
• e.g., Gas company Shell can claim to be ‘climate smart’ by funding third party innovations without changing anything about their harmful use of fossil fuels

Question 21

Explain how the resistance and advocacy work of the Food Sovereignty movement seeks to radically transform food and agriculture systems?

Answer 21

• Food sovereignty goal: people have equitable access to culturally appropriate and nutritious food via sustainable and ecologically sound methods. Give power to procurers, distributors, and consumers
• current power: agrocorps and market demands put emphasis on production
• how:
  mobilize and educate famers to know their rights and advocate for them, reduce effects of monoculture and pesticide use,
  prevent agrocorps from taking over family farms/ monopolizing the market

Question 22

Over half of India faces high to extremely high-water stress. Briefly summarize how the use of groundwater over the last few decades has contributed to this problem?

Answer 22

• problem: 54% of India experiences extremely high-water stress = >80% of freshwater used in one year!
  -why: Lack of government regulation + over extraction, Government subsidizes water-pumping costs, “my land, my water” (Privatizing resource & Selfishness)
• water use contributors: 90% of freshwater extracted is used for irrigation in agriculture. rice is the most profitable but also the most water intensive

Question 23

Describe the function of Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) structures. How might RWH contribute to water security in rural India?

Answer 23

• function: monsoon (June-September) season is the only time India gets rain (3000 billion cubic ms), dry rest of time. 48% of monsoon precipitation goes into rivers and oceans.
  -How: Earthen tanks in the lowlands of southern india catch and store rainwater for later use. Tanks are fed to wells for community use in domestic (drinking, bathing, toilet) and agricultural use (irrigation and livestock)
• water security in India: preserve rainfall to use later, don’t need well on land, allows recharge ground water**, conserve soil, flood control

Question 24

What are some key drivers of water conflict?

Answer 24

• climate change increases stress on countries and can reduce what water they have (e.g., India relies on a shortening monsoon season for collecting rainfall)
• disputes over dam infrastructure, operation and management
• Socioeconomic factors: e.g., Monterrey Mexico’s rapid urban population growth mean big cities need more water. They redistribute water from rural areas to the city. Started ‘water wars’
  -sociodemographic factors like population growth (require more water) can cause people to not be able to adapt as population increases to quickly (e.g., Africa has a high population growth rate and one of the fastest urbanization rates in the world

Question 25

There is an ongoing conflict between Egypt and Ethiopia with respect to the Nile River. Explain what this conflict is about, including both its historical evolution and more current causes.

Answer 25

The ongoing conflict between Egypt and Ethiopia is over the freshwater in the Nile River, which >80 % originates upstream from Ethiopia and travels downstream to Egypt. This water is important to many countries because it is used for drinking and agriculture, without it, many people in a country would face food/water insecurity and illness. The conflict is largely due to the history of colonialism by Britain in the mid 1900s. When Britain occupied and took control over several countries (including Egypt, Kenya, and Tanzania) it established the anglo-Egyptian treaty of 1929, which gave Egypt veto-power and full control over the Nile’s water, without consulting other countries such as Ethiopia. In 1959, after the previous occupied countries gained indepence from Britain, the Egypt-Sudan Treaty was established, causing other countries, mainly Ethiopia, to reject it as they believed the power over the Nile given to them by the British was no longer in effect due to their independence. Egypt wants to remain in control, so they argue for the legitimacy of their 1929 treaty, causing them to allocate 66% of 55.5 bcm of the Nile’s water to themselves and 22% to Sudan. In response, Ethiopia started construction on the Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD) in 2011. The GERD has the capacity to hold 74 bcm of water in its reservoir, which aims to increase equal access to freshwater, decrease evaporative from 12%, decrease flooding in Sudan, produce electricity. Egypt relies on the Nile for 90% of its water use and its arid climate leave little other water sources so they have been threatening Ethiopia other Nile countries with war and rejecting attempts by the UN and world bank to facilitate conflict resolution. Egypt’s claim to historical treaties have resulted in a deadlock over the issue allocating the Niles’ water.

Question 26

Discuss some key factors that can facilitate cooperation for water management?

Answer 26

• development of treaties that allocate equitable access to water
• clearly defined boundires and property rights so people know where and how much they can use
• sperate parties like river basin management teams that can over see infrastructure builds, water allocations, etc
• good policies: can resolve conflict!

Question 27

Define environmental justice, and explain how it is both a form of analysis and a social movement?

Answer 27

• analysis: expose racist distribution of environmental harm/risk, research by scholars like Dr.Bullard (toxic waste in Warren county), critical scholarship, consciousness raising, have to show that toxic waste is disproportionality dumped in Black areas. And that it is negatively affecting the health of Black residents
  -social movement: raises awareness in affected communities, protests (e.g., people lying down on the road to prevent gov from dumping toxic waste in Warren County, predominantly black), global reach
• Sending garbage to global south

Question 28

The environmental justice movement has achieved greater global influence relative to the environmental movement. Explain why this is the case?

Answer 28

The environmental justice movement has achieved greater global success relative to the environmental movement because it is easier for humans to empathize with other humans than with plant/animal species they may have never seen or known the importance of. If humans, such as those in Flint Michagin with unsuitable drinking water , see that the environmental justice movement supports them, they will support the environmental justice movement; whereas, plant and animal species will not. People who support these movements can also see their progress in real time versus climate and bio changes which take a longer time to take affect and publish. There is also the idea that scientists should/are the only ones concerned with environmental issues. Another major factor in the disproportionate success of the environmental justice movement involves evolution of goals and perspectives; for example, the env justice movement has expanded its scope beyond its initial issue of racism regarding toxic waste being dumped in Black communities by the government to gender equality and other Global issues. In comparison, the environmental movement has remained stagnant by not expanding its scope to human issues or evolving beyond species conservation.
- Sending garbage to global south

Question 29

.Using the case study of Flint, Michigan, explain how the water crisis there was a result of environmental racism. Your answer needs to trace the source of “the problem” (how was it created, and why?)

Answer 29

The case of Flint Michigan is a result of environmental racism due to both historical and current issues combined. The issue involves racism because the historical and current demographic of the town is Black and disproportionately affected by compared to surrounding areas with a prodominently white population due to redlining. After General Motors, the main industry in Flint, outsourced its production to foreign countries with cheaper labour, the once prolific town of Flint was thrust into poverty. The combined factors of the historical racism of the American government and the lack of income Flint was producing for them, they made rash decisions and cut corners when dealing with the cities water supply. The source of the problem is that the government knowingly switched Flint’s water from the Michigan Basin to the nearby flint river without properly treating the water, resulting in the leaching of Lead from the pipes into the water in the homes of Flint’s resident’s. The Lead in the water negatively affected the health of the prodominently Black residents of Flint including causing bacterial infections, hair loss, legionnaire disease and exposure to a lead-neurotoxin with both acute and long term affects. The affects of the racism perpetuated by the American government continued when the residents began advocating for changes to be made to ensure their safety. The American governemnts gaslighting and slow response and prioritization of profit over peoples safety only worsened the issue for Flint’s residents. Finally the government agreed to replace the pipes but it will take many years, meaning the residents of Flint will have to accept the less than adequate shipments of fresh water and will continue to have to pay out of pocket for any more freshwater they need. A big issue for the poverty-stiricken town.
- while nearby white neighborhoods who could contribute more through taxes got infrastructural updates

Question 30

What is the role of the World Trade Organization (WTO) and why is there controversy surrounding it?

Answer 30

• WTO: facilitates trade, regulates trade, deals with disbutes over intellectual property ,bring town tariffs btw countries …
  -controversy: unequal distribution of power btw global south and north, unequal ACCESS to market btw countries,
  -developing countries: some developed countries still identify as developing to get higher tarfifs. agriculture value is reduced (chicken farmers outcompeted by foreign markets that dump chicken which they can mass produce for cheaper)
  -developed countries can subsidize their agrictulturee which developing countries cannot afford, so they outcompete them in agro-market

Question 31

Explain how free trade affects issues of economic equity and justice in developing country contexts? Support your answer using examples that were discussed in class?

Answer 31

Free trade in practice increasing inequality between developed and developing countries as well as within the countries themselves. Foreign industries which outsource to developing countries also receive the same benefits, such as subsidies, as local businesses. Growth of developing countries is restricted because local markets cannot compete with multinational corporations. One example of this is Onion farmers in Cameroon, Africa, who are outcompeted by the low prices of imported goods, resulting them being pushed out of their local markets and at risk of losing their farms and homes. This also reduces the economic growth of the developing country because the money they would have gotten for their onions is not being circulated. Agricultural subsidies also play a huge role in developing countries food markets, as they cannot afford the national interest of global trade like developed countries can. There is also issues of losing residents to developed countries with a promise of a ‘better life’. These individuals go on to improve the economy of foreign countries rather than lifting up their own economy.