Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards
What is random sampling and what is random assignment? Why are they important?
RANDOM SAMPLING:
A technique in which each person is equally likely to be selected.
* Removes all hints of bias by (ideally) including all parties.
RANDOM ASSIGNMENT:
Randomly sorting the random sample into control and experimental groups.
* HELPS MITIGATE CONGOUNDING VARIABLES.
What is operationalization?
How you will measure a variable
(ex: What is hunger? -> “How hungry are you on a scale of 0-3)
What is the logic of the experimental method?
Experiments allow us to make causal conclusions (using independent and dependent variables!)
What are the 5 parts of the neuron?
1: Dendrites
2: Cell Body (soma)
3: Axon
4: Myelin Sheath
5: Terminal Branches of the Axon
What is the function of the Dendrites?
To receive information from other neurons and send it to the cell body
What is the function of the Cell Body (soma)?
Acts as energy center of the cell (contains nucleus)
What is the function of the Axon?
Carries electrical impulses to that the brain can send signals and communicate with the rest of the body
What is the function of the Myelin Sheath?
Allows electrical impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells. If myelin is damaged, these impulses slow down.
What is the function of the Terminal Branches of the Axon?
Change electrical impulses or action potentials within a neuron into chemical messages in the form of neurotransmitters.
What does action potential/neural impulse mean?
- ALL OR NOTHING flow of information that travels through axon caused by “Depolarization”
- Occurs when (excitatory signals - inhibitory signals <= certain threshold)
What do we mean when we say that the structure of the brain is contralateral?
Opposite-Sided: the left side of the brain is responsible for controlling a number of sensory and motor functions of the right side of the body, and vice versa.
What is selective attention?
When awareness is focused on a specific aspect of your conscious experience
- (focusing your attention on something automatically decreases attention to irrelevant things)
What are the two tracks of our dual-processing mind?
1: Conscious Track (the “sequential processing”)
- Deliberate concentration, action, or choice
2: Unconscious Track (the “parallel processing”)
- Automatic thoughts/feelings behind the scene
What is heritability?
The percentage of VARIATION of traits due to genes (NOT how genetic a certain trait is)
THE EXTENT TO WHICH VARIATION CAN BE ATTRIBUTED TO GENES
- May vary depending on which populations and environments are studied
When does heritability increase?
- Heritability INCREASES when:
1) The environment becomes more and more controlled (differences in behavioral traits become more tied to genes as the environment becomes more uniform)
2) Genetic variation increases (wider variety of phenotypes)
What are the differences between Collectivism and Individualism?
Collectivism:
- the self is part of a GROUP
- the self is FLUID across different situations
- personal DUTIES and group well-being are important
(Japan, Korea, Taiwan)
Individualism:
- the self is UNIQUE
- the self is STABLE across different situations
- personal GOALS and opportunities to express oneself are important
(USA, Canada, Germany)
How are sex and gender similar and different? Which definition does the proclamation on the family refer to?
Sex: the BIOLOGICALLY INFLUENCED characteristics by which people define boy, girl, man, and woman. (NATURE)
Gender: the physical, behavioral, and SOCIALLY INFLUENCED characteristics that are culturally associated with male and female roles and identity. (NURTURE)
- The Family Proclamation refers to SEX but uses the word gender.
What is Piaget’s Stage Theory of Development? How does this theory explain cognitive development?
4 Stages of (NATURal) Development
Jean Piaget’s ATTEMPT TO CATEGORIZE THE DEVELOPMENT OF COGNITION as children constantly try to make sense of the world.
* Cognitive development is shaped by the errors we make (we learn from failure)
What are the 4 stages of Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development?
- Sensorimotor Stage
- PREOPERATIONAL STAGE
- Concrete-Operational Stage
- Formal Operational Stage
What are the attachment styles we discussed in class? How can we discern between each style?
Secure Attachment
- Explore environment happily when caregiver is present
- Show distress when caregiver leaves
- Caregivers are responsive and attentive
(about 60% of children)
Insecure Attachment
- Cling to caregiver (do not explore) when she is present
- Caregivers only attend to children when they wanted to but ignored child otherwise
What is the difference between sensation and perception?
Sensation usually involves sensing the existence of a stimulus, whereas perceptual systems involve the determination of what a stimulus is.
What is classical conditioning?
PAIRING OF TWO STIMULI that eventually changes behavior
What are the Components of Classical Conditioning?
- Unconditioned Stimulus (US): automatically produces a response before conditioning
(ex: food) - Unconditioned Response (UR): automatic behavioral response to US
(ex: salivating in response to food) - Neutral Stimulus (NS)-> Conditional Stimulus (CS): neutral stimulus is paired with the US
(ex: ringing bell when food is presented) - Conditioned Response (CR): new behavior in response to neutral stimulus (which is now CS)
(ex: salivating in response to bell without food)
What is operant conditioning?
Formation of new active behaviors by using
LAW OF EFFECT: consequences of behavior will change future behavior–make behavior more or less likely to happen
(“If result is good, I do it again. If result is bad, I don’t”)
- Operant Conditioning leads to more complex behavior than just reflexes (U.R. and C.R.)
What are the Components of Operant Conditioning?
Reinforcements:
- Changes that occur after an Operant Behavior that INCREASES the frequency of the Operant Response in the future
- (“the behavior was reinforced”)
Punishments:
- Changes that occur after an Operant Behavior that DECREASES the frequency of the Operant Response in the future
- (“the behavior was punished”)
*REINFORCEMENTS ARE MORE EFFECTIVE THAN PUNISHMENTS! (love is stronger than fear)
What is the difference between Positive and Negative Reinforcements and Punishments?
POSITIVE Reinforcement:
- The INTRODUCTION of something desirable after a behavior
- INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
NEGATIVE Reinforcement:
- The REMOVAL of something undesirable after a behavior
- INCREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
POSITIVE Punishment:
- The INTRODUCTION of something undesirable after a behavior
- DECREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
NEGATIVE Punishment:
- The REMOVAL of something desirable after a behavior
DECREASES the likelihood of that behavior in the future
What is Sensory Memory? What role does attention play in it?
Sensory Memory: INITIAL SENSATION
- ATTENTION is needed to move information into working memory
What is Working Memory? What role does Rehearsal play in it?
Working Memory: INITIAL PERCEPTION
(a.k.a. short-term memory)
This is our consciousness!
- REHEARSAL is necessary to keep information in working memory (capacity is 7ish things)
What is the difference between explicit and implicit long-term memory?
Explicit (Declarative) Long-Term Memory:
- SPECIFIC THINGS WE CAN RECALL
Implicit (Nondeclarative) Memory:
- NONSPECIFIC THINGS WE REMEMBER BUT CAN’T PINPOINT when or where the experience took place
What are the “Representativeness” and the “Availability Heuristics”? Be able to give examples.
Representativeness Heuristic: Judging the likelihood of something in terms of how well it represents a prototype
(ex: seeing a religious older man who wears glasses and likes the BoM; LDS or Baptist?)
Availability Heuristic: Basing judgments on how easily something can be brought to mind; how cognitively “available” it is (THE NEWS)
(ex: judging fatal automobile accidents to be more common than heart disease deaths when we drive a lot more than we deal with health issues)
What do we mean when we talk about a critical period of language?
Language MUST be learned by a certain age. It’s very difficult for the child to learn if they are not exposed to language within first few years.
(ex: tragedy of Genie)
What is language determinism? Provide an example.
Language determines thought (the language you speak determines how you perceive the world)
(ex: Time ~ volume in Spanish
Time ~ distance in English)
What is Maslow’s hierarchy of needs/motives?
- Not all motives are equal
- Some motives and goals have priority over others
- We must fulfill basic needs first before moving on to higher motives
PYRAMID
1) Self-Actualization: fulfillment & achievement
2) Esteem Needs: psychological
3) Belongingness & Love Needs: psychological
4) Safety Needs: basic
5) Physiological Needs: basic
What is the implication of Maslow’s Hierarchy regarding how we choose what goals to pursue?
Our goals (motivations) will change depending on what needs we need to fulfill
What is the difference between “Intrinsic” and “Extrinsic” motivation? Give examples of each.
Intrinsic Motivation: the INTERNAL desire to perform a behavior for its own sake
* Better for Long Term Goals
(ex: the strong desire to grow closer to Heavenly Father)
Extrinsic Motivation: behaving a certain way to gain EXTERNAL rewards (or avoid potential punishments)
* Better for Short Term Goals
(ex: the desire to please others)
What is the fundamental attribution error?
The tendency to overestimate the influence of personality and underestimate the influence of situation
What were the findings of Asch’s conformity experiments?
People conform to group pressure and deny evidence of their own senses.
74% of people conform to the wrong thing even if they know it’s wrong.
(clearly different lengths of lines)
What are the three components of prejudice?
1) Affections (prejudice emotions)
2) Behaviors (discrimination)
3) Cognitions (stereotypes)
What are the 4 Ds of defining psychological disorders?
1) Deviance
2) Distress
3) Dysfunction
4) Danger
What is Deviance? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
Different, extreme, unusual, perhaps even bizarre behaviors
- Deviance from what? From social norms, cultural norms, or specific circumstances
- NOT NORMAL -> disorder
What is Distress? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
When things that are unpleasant or upsetting to the person causes suffering
(ex: anxiety)
- NOT NORMAL -> disorder
What is Dysfunction? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
Behaviors that interferes with daily life and distracts from productivity
- NOT NORMAL -> Disorder
What is Danger? How does it help us define/diagnose a psychological disorder?
- Potential harm or danger to self/others
- Careless, Hostile, confused
- Immediate vs. long term
- NOT NORMAL -> Disorder
What are the dangers of psychological disorders? (who is likely to be hurt?)
Psychological disorders affect normal functions, physical health, family and other relationships, job performance, and can lead to public safety concerns. In short, Psychological can potentially hurt EVERYONE :(
Do psychological disorders predict violence?
Psychological disorders do NOT predict violence
- Most violent criminals are not mentally ill
- Most mentally ill people are not violent
- Violence is difficult to predict
What is the difference between suicidal behavior and non-suicidal self injury?
SUICIDAL BEHAVIOR
Alternative to:
- Life suffering
- Lack of belonging
- Inescapable situation
- Burdening others
NON-SUICIDAL SELF INJURY
Intention to:
- Find emotional relief
- Attract attention and help
- Relieve guilt
- Fit in with a peer group
What are the pros and cons of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manuel of Mental Disorders? (medical model)
Pros:
- Creates common terminology
- Clinical utility
- Promotes unified research
- Fosters understanding/communication
Cons:
- Differences in reliability
- Symptom heterogeneity
- High rate of comorbidity
- Pathologizes everyday life
