Final Exam Study Guide Flashcards
What does gonads produce?
Gonads are the organs that produce gametes, the eggs and sperm that unite to form new individuals
What are the male gonads?
Testes which produce Sperm
What are the female gonads?
Ovaries which produces ova
What are germ cells?
The undifferentiated gonadal cells destined to produce eggs and sperm are called germ cells.
Name the male and female gonads and gametes.
Male: gonads –> testes Gametes—> sperm
Female: Gonads –> ovaries Gametes –> ovum
True/False: A zygote with one Y chromosome will live.
False
True/False: A zygote with one X chromosome will live.
True. they will have turner syndrome
True/False: Once the ovaries develop in the female fetus, one X chromosome in each cell of her body is inactivated and condenses into a clump of nuclear chromatin known as Barr body.
True
At what week in pregnancy does an embryo begin to develop and differentiate?
7 weeks
What are the two pairs of accessory ducts found in the bipotential internal genitalia?
- Wolffian ducts
- Mullerian ducts
Name the structures of the bipotential external genitalia.
- Genital tubercle
- Urethral folds
- urethral groove
- labioscrotal swellings
Sex determination depends on the presence or absence of the ——–gene.
SRY
T/F: Males always exhibit the traits associated with an X-linked gene. If that X-linked gene is defective, male offspring will exhibit the mutation.
True
List some X-linked diseases.
Duchenne muscular dystrophy[p. 399], hemophilia[p. 527], and color-blindness.
What protein is produced by the SRY gene?
Testis- determining factor (TDF)
T/F: Testicular development requires male sex hormones such as testosterone.
False!
T/F: The developing embryo cannot secrete testosterone until after the gonads differentiate into testes.
T
What does interstitial (Leydig) cells secrete?
Androgens
What does the sertoli cells secrete?
Anti-Mullerian hormone
What does DHT stand for?
Dihydrotestosterone
What does anti-mullerian hormone do?
Cause the embryonic Mullerian ducts to regress
What does testosterone do in male development?
Testosterone converts the Wolffian ducts into male accessory structures: epididymis, vas deferens, and seminal vesicle (male 3)
Later in fetal development, testosterone controls migration of the testes from the abdomen into the scrotum.
What is the name of the enzyme that catalyzes the conversion of testosterone to DHT?
5 alpha - Reductase
In female embryos, which have no SRY gene, the cortex of the bipotential gonad develops into——.
Ovarian Tissue
2) Where in a target cell would you expect to find receptors for androgens? Where would you expect to find receptors for AMH?
3.) Why was King Henry VIII of England wrong to blame his wives when they were unable to produce a male heir to the throne?
Males have the SRY gene, they control the outcome of the sex of the child
4.) Which sex will a zygote become if it inherits only one X chromosome (XO)?
Female with turner syndrome
5.) If the testes are removed from an early male embryo, why does it develop a uterus and Fallopian tubes rather than the normal male accessory structures? Will the embryo have male or female external genitalia? Explain.
True/False: Eggs are motile.
False
How doe egg cells move through the reproductive tract?
Currents created by smooth muscle contraction of the beating of cilia
True/False: sperm are the only flagellated cell in the body.
True
What is gametogenesis?
The gamete production
When do men manufacture sperm?
During puberty
True/False: In both sexes, germ cells in the embryonic gonads first undergo a series of mitotic divisions to increase their numbers 1. After that, the germ cells are ready to undergo meiosis, the cell division process that forms gametes.
True
What is the first step of meiosis?
In the first step of meiosis 2, the germ cell’s DNA (2n) replicates until each chromosome is duplicated
46 chromosomes gets duplicated to 92 chromosomes.
What is spermatogonia?
At puberty, germ cell mitosis resumes. From that point onward, the germ cells, known as spermatogonia (singular spermatogonium),
How many sperm does each spermatocytes create?
4
In males what occurs during the first meiotic division?
, a primary spermatocyte (4n) divides into two secondary spermatocytes.
In males what occurs during the second meiotic division?
Each secondary spermatocyte divides into two spermatids
What are germ cells called in the embryonic ovary?
Oogonia
6.) The gametes in a newborn male are at what stage of development? Is it the same in a newborn female?
7.) Compare the amount of DNA in the first polar body with the amount of DNA in the second polar body.
8.) How many gametes are formed from one primary oocyte? From one primary spermatocyte?
In men, where is most testosterone secreted from.
In men, most testosterone is secreted by the testes, but about 5% comes from the adrenal cortex
True/False: The testes and ovaries both contain the enzyme aromatase.
True
What does aromatase do?
Converts andorgens to estrogens
What do the ovaries produce?
The ovaries produce estradiol.
Where is the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) found?
It is from the hypothalamus
Which hormones does GnRH control the secretion of?
controls secretion of two anterior pituitary gonadotropins: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
What does FSH and LH act on?
The gonads
True/False: FSH and LH in turn act on the gonads.
True
True/False: In recent years physiologists have determined that the control of GnRH is under the influence of several hypothalamic neuropeptides, including one named kisspeptin.
True
What inhibits FSH secretion?
Inhibins
What is the name of the peptide hormone form the gonads that stimulates FSH secretion.?
Activin
What is the role of activins?
Activins also promote spermatogenesis, oocyte maturation, and development of the embryonic nervous system.
What happens when circulating levels of gonadal steroids are low?
the pituitary secretes FSH and LH (Fig. 26.6b).
What happens to FSH and LH secretion as androgen levels increase?
as androgen levels go up, FSH and LH secretion decreases.
What is the GnRH pulse generator? What does it do?
It is the region of the hypothalamus that coordinates the pulsatile secretion of GnRH.
What does aromatase do? (9)
What do the following abbreviations stand for? (Spelling counts!) FSH, DHT, SRY, LH, GnRH, AMH (10)
Name the hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormones that control reproduction. (11)
What makes up the male external genitalia?
- penis
- scrotum
- urethra
- corpus spongiousm
- corpora cavernosa
What is the corpus spongiousm?
Surrounds the male urethra, it is a spongy column of tissue
What is the corpora cavernosa?
Constitutes the erectile tissue of the penis.
What is the tip of the penis called?
The glans
Where does the testes migrate during fetal development?
To the scrotum.
What temperature does sperm need need to be in?
2-3 °F lower than core body temperature.
What is the condition called when one or both testes fail to descend?
Crptorchidism
True/False: Testes that remain in the abdomen through puberty are fertile.
False! sterile
What are the male accessory glands and ducts?
- prostate gland
- seminal vesicles
- Blulbourethral glands (cowper’s glands)
What problems can an enlarged prostate create?
Difficulty urinating by narrowing the passageway
True/False: DHT controls the fetal development of the prostate gland.
True
True/False: testes have a soft outer fibrous capsule
False! tough
Where are the seminiferous tubules?
The testes have a tough outer fibrous capsule that encloses masses of coiled seminiferous tubules
The seminiferous tubules leave the testis and join the—————–.
Epididymis
———————– single duct that forms a tightly coiled cord on the surface of the testicular capsule
Epididymis
The epididymis becomes the———— also known as the ductus deferens.
Vas deferens
Which duct passes the abdomen and empties into the urethra?
Vas deferens/ductus deferens
Where is the site of sperm production?
Seminiferous tubules
What are the two cells carried by the seminiferous tubules?
Sertoli cells and spermatogonia
Which direction does the apical ends of the sertoli cells face?
The tubule lumen
How are the Sertolic cells in a tubule linked to each other?
tight junctions that form an additional barrier between the lumen of the tubule and the interstitial fluid outside the basal lamina.
What is the function of sertoli cells?
The function of Sertoli cells is to regulate sperm development. Another name for Sertoli cells is sustentacular cells because they provide sustenance, or nourishment, for the developing spermatogonia.
What is ABP known as?
Androgn-binding protein
ABP is secreted into the -, where it binds to testosterone.
seminiferous tubule lumen
Testosterone bound to protein is —lipophilic and cannot diffuse out of the tubule lumen.
Less
Where are Leydig cells located?
Interstitial (Leydig) cells, located in the interstitial tissue between seminiferous tubules
What do Leydig cells secrete?
Testosterone
By the time spermatocytes reach the luminal ends of Sertoli cells, they have divided twice and become……..
primary spermatocytes
——- the germ cells that undergo meiotic division to become sperm, are found clustered near the basal ends of the Sertoli cells, just inside the basal lamina of the seminiferous tubules.
Spermatogonia
As spermatocytes differential into sperm, they move inward toward the——————, continuously surrounded by ——–cells.
tubule lumen
Sertoli
As spermatocytes differential into sperm, they move inward toward the——————, continuously surrounded by ——–cells.
tubule lumen
Sertoli
Spermatocytes that have divided twice become——-.
Spermatids
Define acrosome.
Lysosome-like vesicle of sperm that contains powerful enzymes essential for fertilization.
Which cells does FSH target?
Sertoli cells
——– is essential for spermatogenesis, but its actions appear to be mediated by Sertoli cells, which have androgen receptors.
Testosterone
True/False: spermatocytes contain androgen receptors and can respond directly to testosterone.
False. Spermatocytes lack androgen receptors and cannot respond directly to testosterone.
What do Sertoli cells secrete? What do interstitial cells secrete? 12
Because GnRH agonists cause down-regulation of GnRH receptors, what would be the advantages and disadvantages of using these drugs as a male contraceptive (13)
Which cells of the testes have receptors for FSH? For LH? For androgens? 14
What are the three accessory glands of the male reproductive tract?
- Bulbourethral glands
- Seminal vesicles
- Prostate
What are primary sex characteristics?
Internal sex organs that distinguish males from females.
What are secondary sex characteristics?
Characteristics that distinguish males and females but not sexual characteristics. Ex. hair growth, muscular development, thickening of vocal chords, libido.
What are the female external genitalia known as?
Vulva or pudendum
True/False: The cervical canal is lined with mucous glands whose secretions create a protective barrier between the vagina and the uterus.
True
How many chromosomes does the primary spermatocyte or oocyte contain?
Twice the normal amount of DNA 4n
True/False: in second meiotic division, the sister chromatids separate
True
True/false: in males, the cells split during the second meiotic division, resulting in 2 haploid sperm, one from each secondary spermatocyte.
True
In females, the second meiotic division creates one egg and one ——-.
Polar body
When does spermatogenesis occur?
Puberty
How many sperm does each spermatocyte create?
4 sperm
In the first meiotic division, a primary spermatocyte (4n) divides into ———-.
Two secondary spermatocytes
In the second meiotic division, each secondary spermatocyte divides into______.
Two spermatids
How many chromosome in a spermatic?
23
Which month of fetal development does oogonia complete mitosis and the DNA duplication stage of meiosis
5th month
The ovary releases the mature egg during a process known as ————-.
Ovulation
The gametes in a newborn male are at what stage of development? Is it the same as a newborn female?
Compare the amount of DNA in the first polar body with the amount of DNA in the second polar body
How many gametes are formed from one primary oocyte? From one primary spermatocyte?
Testosterone is converted in peripheral tissues to its more potent derivative ——-.
DHT
Both testes and ovaries contain the enzyme ————.
Aromatase
What does aromatase do?
Convert androgens to estrogen
What secretes Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)?
Hypothalamus
What are the two hormones secreted by the anterior pituitary gonadotropins?
FSH and LH
What is kisspeptin?
The control of GnRH is under the influence of several hypothalamic neuropeptides
Kisspeptin signals —— to release LH and FSH
GnRH
—— inhibit FSH secretion.
Inhibins
—— stimulates FSH secretions.
Activins
As steroid secretion increases, negative feedback usually inhibits —— release.
Gonadotropin release
As androgens goes up, FSH and LH secretion——-.
Decreases
Why is it called the GnRH pulse generator?
Because it coordinates the periodic pulsatile secretion of GnRH.
Which structure secretes melatonin?
Pineal gland
What does aromatase do?
Converts androgens to estrogen
What did the following abbreviations stand for? LSH, DHT, SRY, LH, GnRH, AMH.
Name the hypothalamic and anterior pituitary hormones the control reproduction.
What is cryptorchidism?
The failure of one or both tested to descend.
What are the male accessory glands and ducts called?
Prostate gland, seminal vesicles, and the bulbourethral glands.
What is the function of Sertoli cells?
Regulate development
What is androgen-binding protein (ABP) ?
Sertoli cell protein that binds testosterone to keep it in the lumen of the seminiferous tubules.
What did interstitial cells also known as Leydig cells secrete?
Testosterone
As spermatocytes differentiate into sperm, they move toward the tubule lumen, continuously surrounded by——— cells.
Sertoli
By the time spermatocytes have reached the luminal ends of Sertoli cells, they have divided —- and become ——
Twice, spermatids
How does FSH target Sertoli cells?
In males, FSH does not have FSH receptors, instead FSH stimulates Sertoli synthesis of paracrine molecules needed for spermatogonia mitosis and spermatogenesis.
What do Sertoli cells secrete? What do interstitial cells secrete?
Because GnRH agonists cause down-regulation of GnRH receptors, what would be the advantages and disadvantages of using these drugs as a male contraceptive?
Which cells of the testes have receptors for FSH? For LH? For androgens?
What are the three accessory glands of the male reproductive tract?
Bulbourethral glands, seminal vesicles, and prostate
What do the bulbourethral glands contribute to semen?
Mucus for lubrication plus buffers to neutralize the acidic environment of the vagina
What are primary characteristics?
Internal sex organs and external genitalia that distinguish females from males.
What are secondary sex characteristics?
Other disguising traits between male and female. Ex. Females have a wider pelvis
Which cells secrete AMH?
Granulosa cells
Thecal cells synthesize androgens that diffuse into neighboring——- cells.
granulosa
Describe follicular phase
Describe mid to late follicular phase
What is corpus albicans?
Remnants of corpus luteum
What happens to the corpus luteum if pregnancy doesn’t occur?
It undergoes apoptosis
Name the phases of the ovarian cycle and corresponding phases of the uterine cycle.
What side effects would you predict in female athletes who take anabolic steroids to build muscles?
Aromatase converts testosterone to estrogen. What would happen to the ovarian cycle of a woman given Aromatase inhibitor?
On what day of the menstrual cycle will a woman with the following cycle lengths ovulate ?
a.) 28 days
b.) 23 days
c.) 31 days
A.)14 days before the next period
Human sexual response in both sexes is divided into four phases. What are those phases?
- Excitement
- Plateau
- Orgasm
- Resolution
What is capacitation?
Sperm deposited in the female reproductive tract must go through their final maturation step.
Where does capitation take place?
In the female reproductive tract.
An egg can be fertilized for only about———— hours after ovulation.
12 - 24
To fertilize the egg, a sperm must penetrate both an outer layer of loosely connected ————- cells and a protective glycoprotein coat called the ———————.
Granulosa
zona pellucida
What is the acrosomal reaction?
Capacitated sperm release powerful enzymes from the the sperm head
How long does it take for the embryo to move through the Fallopian tube?
4 or 5 days
Define blastocyst
Early embryo, consisting of hollow ball of cells
What is the chorion?
An extraembryonic membrane that will enclose the embryo and form the placenta.
What does the amnion secrete?
Secretes the amniotic fluid in which the developing embryo floats
What is the allantois?
Extraembryonic membrane that becomes part of the umbilical cord.
What are the three extraembryonic membranes that enclose the embryo and form the placenta?
1.) Yolk Sac
2.) Chorion
3.) Amnion
How long after does the blastocyst implant on the uterine wall?
7 days
What is chorionic villi?
Tiny projections of placental tissue that look like fingers and contain the same genetic material as the fetus.
How long is the corpus luteum life span?
12 days
Why does the corpus luteum remain active during pregnancy?
Because of the HcG
Corpus luteum keeps producing ———- to keep the endometrium intact.
Progesterone
What does hCS stand for ?
Human chorionic somatomammotropin.
What does hPL stand for?
Human placental lactogen hPL
Which hormone is necessary for breast development during pregnancy and for milk production?
Prolactin
What does hCS do?
Contributes to lactation and alters the mother’s glucose and fatty acid metabolism to support fetal growth.
Which hormone is responsible for maintaining the endometrium?
Progesterone
When does parturition occur in gestation?
38th and 40th week
True/False: Oxytocin is a labor trigger.
True
True/False: women with elevated CRH levels as early as 15 weeks of gestation are more likely to go into premature labor.
True
What is relaxin?
A peptide hormone secreted by ovaries and the placenta
The cervix stretch starts a ———— feedback cycle of escalating contractions.
positive
___________ are produced in the uterus in response to oxytocin and CRH secretions.
Prostaglandin
What is the primary cause of menstrual cramps?
Prostaglandin
__________ clamp the maternal blood vessels and help prevent excessive bleeding.
Uterine contractions
During puberty, the breasts begin to develop under the influence of ________.
Estrogen
Milk production is stimulated by?
Prolactin
Prolactin is released from the _______ pituitary.
Anterior
Which hormone controls prolactin?
Prolactin - inhibiting hormone (PIH)
What is colostrum?
Thin, low-fat secretion produced by mammary glands
What are the proteins in colostrum?
Maternal immunoglobulins, secreted into the duct and absorbed by the infant’s intestinal epithelium.
Suckling, the mechanical stimulus of the infant nursing at the breast, also inhibits ______ production.
PIH
In the absence of PIH, prolactin secretion———
Increases
Let down reflex
Ejection of milk from the glands
Let down reflex requires…
The presence of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary.
What is hypercapnia?
Elevated CO2 in blood
Does hypoxia and hyercapnia usually go hand in hand?
Yes
Hypoxic hypoxia
Low arterial oxygen
What causes hypoxia?
High altitude, alveolar hypoventilation, decreased lung diffusion capacity, abnormal ventilation-perfusion ratio.
What is anemic hypoxia ?
Decreased total amount of oxygen bound to hemoglobin.
What causes anemic hypoxia?
Blood loss, anemia, carbon monoxide poisoning
What is ischemic hypoxia?
Reduced blood flow
What are some causes of ischemic hypoxia?
Heart failure, shock, thrombosis
Histotoxic hypoxia
Failure of cells to use oxygen because cells have been poisoned
Histotoxic hypoxia
Failure of cells to use oxygen bc cells have been poisoned.
What is a common cause of Histotoxic hypoxic
Cyanide and other metabolic poisons
Arterial oxygen delivery to the cells must be adequate to support _________ respiration and ATP production
Aerobic
What is produced as a waste product in the citric acid cycle?
carbon dioxide
Why is excretion of CO2 by the lungs important?
1.) high levels of CO2 are a central nervous system depressant
2.) elevated CO2 causes of acidosis (low pH)
Elevated CO2 causes a state of (acidosis/alkalosis).
Acidosis ! Low Ph, think bicarbonate buffer system
What is the average blood pH?
7.35 to 7.45
What is the normal oxygen arterial pressure and venous pressure?
95 mmHg
40 mmHg
What is the arterial and venous pressure of CO2?
40 mmHg
46 mmHg
What is the normal venous pH?
7.37
Gas moves from ____ partial pressure to regions of ________ partial pressure.
Higher , Lower
CO2 is ____ in tissues than in systemic capillary blood bc of CO2 production during metabolism.
Higher
Which of the following 3 metabolic pathways glycolysis, citric acid cycle, and the electron transport system is directly associated with a.) oxygen consumption b.) carbon dioxide production.
Why doesn’t the movement of oxygen from the alveoli to the plasma decrease the partial pressure of oxygen
If nitrogen is 78% of atmospheric air, what is the partial pressure of this gas when the dry atmospheric pressure is 720 mmHg?
.78 x 720 = 561.6 mmHg
What happens with emphysema?
Destruction of the alveoli means less surface area for gas exchange.
Normal or low oxygen in the alveoli
What occurs in fibrotic lung disease?
Thickened Alveolar membrane slows gas exchange. loss of lung compliance may decrease alveolar ventilation.
- normal or lower O2
What is pulmonary edema ?
Too much fluid in the lungs
What occurs in the gas exchange for an individual with pulmonary edema?
Fluid in the interstitial space increases diffusion distance. Arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide may be normal due to higher carbon dioxide solubility in water.
What is asthma?
A disease that affects your lungs. It causes repeated episodes of wheezing, breathlessness, chest tightness, and nighttime or early morning coughing. 
What happens with gas exchange in asthma?
Increased airway resistance, decreases, alveolar ventilation. Bronchioles constricted the partial pressure of oxygen is low in capillaries and partial pressure of oxygen is low in alveolar.
What are the two possible causes of low alveolar partial pressure of oxygen?
1.) inspired air has low oxygen content
2.) alveolar ventilation is inadequate
What is the main factor that affects atmospheric oxygen?
Altitude 
What happens to the partial pressure of oxygen in the air along with the total atmospheric pressure as you move from sea level to higher altitudes?
It decreases
What happens to the total pressure in the lungs as you go higher altitudes?
It becomes more important
______ is the primary problem that people experience when ascending to high altitude?
Hypoxia 
Define hypoventilation
Low alveolar ventilation is notice hypoventilation, and it is characterized by lower than normal volumes of fresh air entering the alveoli.
What are the pathological changes that can result in alveolar hypoventilation? 
Decreased lung compliance, increased airway resistance, or central nervous system depression, that slows ventilation rate, and decreases depth.
What are some common causes of central nervous system depression in young people? 
Alcohol poisoning and drug overdoses. 
At the summit of Mount Everest, in altitude of 8850 m, atmospheric pressure is only 250 mmHg. What is the partial pressure of oxygen of dry atmospheric air a top Everest? If water vapor attitude inhaled air at the summit. Has a partial pressure of 47 mmHg, what is the partial pressure of oxygen of inhaled air when it reaches the alveoli?
If the composition of inspired air is normal for alveolar, partial pressure of oxygen is low, then the problem is lie with________.
Alveolar ventilation, 
Low alveolar ventilation is known as blank ?
 Hypoventilation.
Is hypoxia is not caused by hyperventilation, then the problem usually lies with some aspects of gas exchange between blank and blank.
Alveoli and blood
True or false if hypoxia is not caused by hyperventilation than the alveolar partial pressure of oxygen is not normal.
False! Areolar partial pressure may be normal, but the partial pressure of arterial blood leaving the leaving the lungs is low. 
What is the diffusion rate proportional to?
 Available surface area, the concentration gradient of gas and the permeability of the barrier 
What is diffusion inversely proportional to
?
Diffusion is inversely proportional to the square, or the distance, or in simpler terms. Diffusion is most rapid over short distances.
List three of the pathological changes that adversely affect gas exchange.
1.) a decrease in the amount of alveolar surface area available for gas exchange.
2.) an increase in the thickness of alveolar capillary exchange barrier.
3.) an increase in the diffusion distance between the alveolar air space in the blood.
The irritating effect of smoke chemicals and tar in the alveoli activates alveolar macrophages that release, ______ and other proteolytic enzymes.
Elastase
What does emphysema cause in relation to compliance in recoil of lung?

emphysema causes a high compliance and low elastic recoil long with fewer and larger alveoli in less surface area for gas exchange. 
What effect does fibrotic lung diseases have on the actual alveolar wall?
Fibrotic lung diseases scar tissue thickens the alveolar wall
Which clinical condition causes the accumulation of interstitial fluid to increase the diffusion distance in slow gas exchange?
Pulmonary edema
True or false when capillary hydrostatic pressure increases, more fluid filters out of the capillary.
True
What happens if filtration increases too much?
If filtration increases too much, the lymphatics are unable to remove all the fluid and excess accumulates in the pulmonary interstitial space, creating pulmonary edema 
Why would left ventricular failure or mitral valve dysfunction cause elevated pulmonary blood pressure?
If alveolar ventilation increases what happens to arterial partial pressure of oxygen? To arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide? To Venus partial pressure of oxygen? And to Venus partial pressure of carbon dioxide?
What does it mean in terms of physiology the oxygen has low solubility in aqueous solutions?
The answer is the oxygen, low solubility in aqueous solutions means a very little oxygen can be carried dissolved in plasma. 
Is the arterial partial pressure of oxygen, low or high in pulmonary edema? Is the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, high or low in the pulmonary edema? Why?
In some cases of pulmonary edema, arterial partial, oxygen pressure is low, but arterial. Partial pressure of carbon dioxide is normal because of the different solubility of the two gases. 
True or false plasma with a partial pressure of oxygen of 40 and a partial pressure of carbon dioxide of 40 has the same concentrations of oxygen and carbon dioxide?
False the partial pressure of carbon dioxide would have a higher concentration in the plasma than the oxygen, because carbon dioxide is more soluble in aqueous solutions than oxygen is.
A saline solution is exposed to a mixture of nitrogen, gas and hydrogen gas in which the partial pressure of hydrogen equals the partial pressure of nitrogen. What information do you need to predict whether equal amounts of hydrogen and nitrogen dissolve in the solution? 
What is the mass flow equation?
Mass flow = concentration x volume flow 
What is the molecular structure of hemoglobin?
Hemoglobin is a touch your mirror with for globular proteins chains, each senator around and iron containing heme group
What is oxyhemoglobin?
Hemoglobin bound to oxygen it is abbreviated as HbO2
What is the hemoglobin binding reaction? 
Hi + O2 <=> HbO2
What is HAPE stand for?
High altitude
pulmonary edema
Why would someone with HAPE be short of breath?
Based on what you learned about the mechanisms for matching ventilation and perfusion in the lung can you explain why patience with HAPE have elevated pulmonary arterial blood pressure?
True or false the alveolar partial pressure determines how much can be dissolved of oxygen in the plasma?
True
What happens to the amount of hemoglobin in the body when someone hikes at a high altitude?
The amount of hemoglobin increases
True or false cells require at least 250 mL of oxygen per minute, so that the small number of oxygen that dissolves in plasma cannot meet the needs of the tissues at rest.
 True
Will a pH of 7.6 have a higher or lower binding affinity then ph 7.2?
A pH of 7.6 will have a higher oxygen binding affinity. As the pH decreases, the less the oxygen binding affinity.
Does a temperature of 20°C have a higher or lower binding affinity for oxygen than a temperature of 43°C?
20°C has a higher binding affinity than the 43°C temperature. As the temperature increases the binding affinity for oxygen decreases.
Does the partial pressure of carbon dioxide affect oxygen binding affinity to hemoglobin?
Yes
If the partial pressure of carbon dioxide is 20 will this have a higher or lower oxygen binding affinity for hemoglobin, then the partial pressure of carbon dioxide at 80?
The partial pressure of carbon dioxide at 20 will have a higher oxygen binding affinity to hemoglobin then the partial pressure at 80. As the partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases the binding affinity for oxygen to hemoglobin decreases.
Do you does fetal hemoglobin, have a higher or lower oxygen binding affinity, then adult hemoglobin?
Fetal hemoglobin has a higher oxygen binding affinity to hemoglobin. This occurs because the fetus must obtain the oxygen from the mother.
How does the binding affinity of oxygen hemoglobin for 2,3 BPG compare to no 2,3BPG?
Normal 2,3BPG has a lower binding affinity for oxygen.
Does fetal hemoglobin have 2,3BPG?
No
How does adding erythrocytes to the blood help a person acclimate to high altitude?
Adding erythrocytes adds more hemoglobin, allowing more oxygen to bind, and increase the saturation. This allows more oxygen to get to the tissues of the body. 
What does adding erythrocytes to the blood due to the viscosity of the blood? What effect will that change in viscosity having blood flow?
What does chronic hypoxia due to the levels of 2,3BPG?
Chronic hypoxia triggers an increase in 2,3BPG production in red blood cells
What direction does the oxygen saturation curve shift if the oxygen binding affinity decreases?
Right
Can a person breathing 100% oxygen at sea level achieve 100% saturation of her hemoglobin?
What effect does hyperventilation have on the percent saturation of arterial hemoglobin?
A muscle that is actively contracting may have a cellular partial pressure of oxygen of 25. What happens to oxygen binding to hemoglobin at this low partial pressure of oxygen? What is the partial pressure of oxygen of the venous blood leaving the active muscle?
In the bicarbonate buffer system what is the enzyme used to convert carbon dioxide into bicarbonate?
 Carbonic anhydrase
What is the chloride shift?
Exchanges bicarbonate for chloride
Define carboaminohemoglobin
Hemoglobin with bound carbon dioxide
What happens to the plasma pH during hyperventilation?
When hyperventilation occurs pH increases this is because the hyperventilation eliminates carbon dioxide faster than it is being produced.  The bicarbonate buffer system shifts left towards the carbon dioxide.
What happens to the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli when the venous blood reaches the lungs?
When venous blood reaches the lungs, the processes that took place in the systematic capillaries reverse. The partial pressure of carbon dioxide of the alveoli is lower than that of the venous blood in the pulmonary capillaries.  As carbon dioxide levels in the red blood cells, decreased, the equilibrium of the carbon dioxide. HCO3 reaction is disturbed, shifting the production towards more carbon dioxide.
How would an obstruction of the airways, a fact, alveolar, ventilation, arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the body’s pH?
The obstruction would decrease, alveolar ventilation, increase arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide, and decrease pH of the body
Which receptors does oxygen and pH stimulate?
Carotid, and aortic chemoreceptors
Which receptors does carbon dioxide stimulate?
Medullary chemoreceptors
Which muscles help with inspiration
Scaling and sternocleidomastoid, external intercostals and diaphragm
What do somatic motor neurons (expiration) innervate?
Internal intercostals and abdominal muscles
What is the nucleus tractus solitarius?
Contains the dorsal respiratory group of neurons that control, mostly muscles of inspiration
Output from the dorsal respiratory group, DRG goes via the blank nerves to the diaphragm, and via the blank nerves to the intercostal muscles
Phrenic and intercostal
What does the Pontine respiratory groups do?
The Pontine, respiratory groups and other Pontine neurons, provide tonic input to the medullary networks to help coordinate a smooth respiratory rhythm
What is obstructive sleep apnea?
A sleeping disorder associated with snoring and excessive daytime sleeping
True or false, many neurons of the VRG remain active during quiet respiration

False, they remain inactive
True or false, enforced breathing increased activity of inspiratory, neuron, stimulates accessory muscles, such as the sternocleidomastoid
True
What is the primary stimulus for changes in ventilation? Is it carbon dioxide, oxygen or plasma pH?
Carbon dioxide
What happens to the rate and depth of breathing, if little oxygen is present in arterial blood destined for  brain, and other tissues
The rate and depth of breathing increases
What are carotid bodies?
The carotid bodies in the carotid arteries are the primary peripheral chemoreceptors
How are glomus cells activated?
Specialized type one or glomus cells in carotid. Bodies are activated by a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen or pH or by an increase in carbon dioxide partial pressure. 
What do Glomus cells do?
The trigger a reflex increase in ventilation when there is an increase in the partial pressure of carbon dioxide or buy a decrease in the partial pressure of oxygen are pH.
True or false any condition that reduces plasma, pH or increases partial pressure of carbon dioxide will activate the carotid and aortic glomus cells, and increase ventilation
True
What happens when arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide increases?
The carbon dioxide crosses the blood brain barrier and activate central chemoreceptors. These receptors signal, the control networks to increase the rate and depth of ventilation, thereby enhancing, alveolar ventilation in removing carbon dioxide from the blood
Based on your understanding of how the body controls ventilation, why do you think periodic breathing occurs most often during sleep?
True or false the irritant receptors send signals through sensory neurons to integrating centers in the central nervous system, the trigger bronchodilation
False, it’s bronchoconstriction
Blank, transfers, energy from its high energy phosphate, bond to ADP 
Phosphocreatine
What are the primary substrates for energy production?
Carbohydrates and fats
When the cell lacks oxygen for oxidative phosphorylation the final product of glycolysis, which is pyruvate, is converted to blank instead of acetylcoA
Lactate 3
What happens to free fatty acid concentration in the blood after aerobic exercise?
It increases
Where does glucose for aerobic and anaerobic ATP production come from?
The plasma, glucose, pool, intracellular, stores of glycogen and muscles and liver and nuclear codes made and liver through gluconeogenesis
Endurance training also increases the activity of enzymes for b- oxidation and converts muscle fibers from blank to blank
Fast twitch glycolytic, too fast twitch oxidative glycolytic
What happens to the plasma concentration of glucagon, cortisol and catecholamines and growth hormone during exercise
They all increase
Cortisol and catecholamines, along with growth, hormone promote the conversion of triglycerides to blank and blank
Glycerol and fatty acids
An increase in plasma glucose stimulates, blank release
Insulin
True or false exercise that depends on anaerobic metabolism can be sustained for an extended period
False it cannot!
Cells that obtain their ATP by anaerobic metabolism of glucose to lactate, are said to be caring out blank metabolism
Glycolytic metabolism
What is the advantage of anaerobic metabolism compared to Aerobic?
Anaerobic metabolism has the advantage of speed, producing ATP 2.5 times faster than aerobic pathways do
What are the disadvantages of anaerobic metabolism?
Since anaerobic metabolism is faster than aerobic metabolism, it does have some downfalls
1.) anaerobic metabolism provides only two ATP per glucose compared with an average of 30 to 32 ATP per glucose for oxidative metabolism
2.) anaerobic, metabolism, contributes to a state of metabolic acidosis by producing protons.
True or false most of us only use aerobic metabolism during exercise
False, most of us use a combination of aerobic and anaerobic metabolism during exercise
Which metabolism has the highest ATP production?
ATP production is highest with phosphocreatine than anaerobic metabolism, lastly, aerobic metabolism
Which metabolism has the highest muscle endurance?
Aerobic because it can support exercise for hours
Where does glucose for anaerobic and aerobic ATP production come from?
The body has three sources: the plasma, glucose pool, intracellular, stores of glycogen in muscles and liver, and gluconeogenesis (glucose made in liver)
In reality, aerobic exercise of any duration uses both fatty acids and blank as substrates for ATP production
 Glucose
What happens to the fatty acid concentration after 30 minutes of exercise?
The free fatty acids in the blood increases significantly. This indicates that the fats are being mobilized from adipose  tissue
Chewer false, the breakdown of fatty acids through the process of 
Beta oxidation is slower than that of glucose metabolism through glycolysis
 True
Why is walking a good way to lose weight?
At lower intensity is most of the energy for ATP production comes from fats
Why is carbohydrates important in high intensity exercise?
As high intensity exercise increases, ATP is consumed when rapidly, the muscle fibers begin to use a larger portion of glucose when exercise exceeds that of about 70% of the maximum, carbohydrates become the primary source of energy
True or false aerobic training, decreases both fat and glycogen stores within the muscle fibers
False, the it increases both fat and glycogen
What is the major energy substrate for exercising muscle?
Glucose
As plasma glucose, concentration rises with exercise what happens to the secretion of insulin?
Decreases
What could be an advantage of lower insulin levels during exercise?
Cells other than muscle fibers reduce their glucose uptake there by sparing blood glucose for use by muscles
True or false a persons, maximal rate of oxygen consumption is an indicator of the ability to perform endurance exercise
True
True or false, the greater the maximum rate of oxygen consumption, the greater the persons predicted ability to do work
True
Ventilation increases with exercise. Why does an arterial partial pressure of oxygen increase as well?
What happens to oxygen delivery to cells with increasing exercise?
Why does Venus partial pressure of oxygen decrease in the presence of exercise?
Why does an arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide decrease with Maxximum exercise?
Why does an arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide increase of exercise?
What happens to cardiac output during strenuous exercise?
Increases
Cardio output equals?
Cardiac output = heart rate x stroke volume
Why is overfilling the ventricles potentially dangerous?
Because overstretching could damage the fibers
What is the effect of sympathetic stimulation on the heart?
 It increases contractility so that the heart squeezes not more blood per stroke and increase heart rate to the heart has less time to relax
 What does EPOC stand for?
Excess post exercise, oxygen consumption
What happens to blood pressure during exercise?
The blood pressure increases along with cardiac output
What happens to the mean arterial blood pressure during exercise
It increases slightly, which means that the normal bear receptor reflexes that controls blood pressure functions differently during exercise
What are three signs of malignant hyperthermia (MH)?
Unexplained increase in carbon dioxide, produced by your body, rapid breathing (tachypnea), rapid elevation in temperature
What are the positive effects of exercise for both men and women?
Lowering blood pressure, decreasing plasma triglyceride levels, raising plasma HDL cholesterol levels
How does exercise help alleviate type two diabetes?
Skeletal muscle fibers up regulate both the number of GLUT4 glucose transporters, and the number of insulin receptors on their membrane. The number of insulin dependent GLUT4 transporters decrease the muscles dependence on in insulin for glucose uptake.
True or false people who engage in strenuous exercise, have better immunity than those who engage in a sedentary life style or moderate exercise?
False, think J curve. Strenuous exercise actually decreases immunity immune function, because the stress of exercise, however, those who moderately exercise have slightly more effective immune systems, and those who are sedentary. Regardless those who are sedentary and exercise moderately both have better of you systems, and those who exercise strenuously.
What does malignant hyperthermia?
Dangerously high body temperature
 True or false oxygen consumption rate increases even before we start exercising.
True
What is an oxygen deficit?
Yeah, cellular energy use exceeds oxygen uptake 
When does oxygen debt occur?
Shortly After exercise ends
Describe the pattern of pulmonary ventilation during exercise
When exercise begins, pulmonary ventilation increases, the gradually increases during exercise exercise, and it dropped significantly and continues to decrease
What happens to the arterial partial pressure of oxygen during exercise?
It remains constant. About 100% after prolonged exercise
What happens to the arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide during exercise?
During exercise, the Venus partial pressure of carbon dioxide is constant, then drops after a few minutes of exercise. 
What happens to the Venous partial pressure of oxygen during exercise?
Begins to decrease early on during exercise and continues to decrease. More oxygen is delivered to muscles and other organs that need it during exercise and less oxygen is kept in the Venous portion in circulation
What happens to arterial pH during exercise?
The arterial pH is steady at 7.4 for a while, but as exercise increases, the blood becomes more progressively acidic due to lactic acid build up.
What does proprioreceptors do?
They tell the nervous system where the limbs are in space in relationship to each other
What changes do we see in the respiratory system of highly trained individuals?
Resting RR?
Maximal RR?
Resting TV?
Maximal TV?
Resting alveolar ventilation?
Maximal AV (alveolar vent) ?
Resting Vo2 ?
Vo2 max?
Resting RR? Decrease
Maximal RR? Increases
Resting TV? Increase
Maximal TV? Increase
Resting alveolar ventilation? Increase
Maximal AV (alveolar vent) ? Big increase
Resting Vo2 ? Increase slightly
Vo2 max? Big increase
What are the ions found in sweat?
Sodium, potassium and chloride
The lungs lose water and help remove protons in HCO3 by excreting blank
Carbon dioxide
The organic solutes used to raise intracellular osmolarity include 
Sugar alcohols, and certain amino acids
True or false, low blood pressure stimulates thirst
 True
What happens in the cardiovascular system as a response to decrease in blood pressure and and volume
 The cardiac output increases there by resulting in vasoconstriction this results in an increase in blood pressure
What happens to as the blood volume and blood pressure increases how does the cardiovascular system respond?
The cardiovascular system lowers, cardiac output, thereby resulting in vasodilation. This would decrease the blood pressure.
How does behavior relate to a decrease in blood volume which decreases the blood pressure?
Behavior causes humans to increase thirst, which causes an increase in water intake. This result in increased extracellular fluid and intracellular fluid volume which increases the blood pressure.
How are kidneys affected during a drop in blood volume in blood pressure
The kidneys, conserve salt and water to minimize further volume loss
How do the kidneys function during an increase in blood volume in blood pressure
He can use excrete salts and water in urine. This decreases the extra cellular fluid and intracellular fluid volume. This result in a decrease in blood pressure.
What is hyponatremia?
 It is a drop in the sodium level in the blood disconnect her from too much water intake
True or false to maintain constant volume of water in the body we must taking more water than we excrete
False, we must taking the same amount of water that we excrete intake must equal output
How much water do adults and just on average in a day?
2 L
How much water is lost from the urine daily?
1.5 L.
Define insensible water loss
Water loss across the skin, and in exhaled air of which we are not normally aware
True or false only water loss in the urine can be regulated
True
Define diuresis
Removal of excess water in urine
Where is water in sodium reabsorbed in the kidney
In the distal nephron, which includes the distal tubule and collecting duct
How can the kidney reabsorb water without first reabsorbing the solute?
Water is reabsorbed by osmosis through water pores also known as aquaporin.
Which portion of the nephron is only water reabsorbed
Descending loop of Henle
Which portion of the nephron are ions reabsorbed but no water
Ascending portion of the loop of Henle. Removal of the saw you in the thick, ascending limb creates hyposmotic fluid.
What does vasopressin or ADH do?
This nine amino acid peptide contains amino acid arginine. It causes the body to retain water.
How is AQP2 regulated?
It’s regulated by vasopressin 
Where is AQP2 found?
It’s found on the apical membrane, facing the to be a lumen, and in the membrane of cytoplasmic storage vesicles
When vasopressin arrived at the collecting duct, it binds to its blank receptors on the basolateral side of the cell
V2
What is membrane recycling?
It’s the process in which cell membrane is withdrawn by endocytosis and stored as vesicles in the cytoplasm until needed. At that time, the vesicle is reinserted into the membrane by exocytosis.
Does the apical membrane of the collecting duct cell have more water Porins, when vasopressin is present or when it’s absent?
It has more water pours when vasopressin is present
People who inherit vasopressin V2 receptor deficiency will have urine that is dilute or concentrated?
Dilute
Define osmoreceptor
Sensory receptor that monitors extra cellular fluid osmolarity
What stimuli control vasopressin secretion
Plasma osmolarity, blood volume, and blood pressure
What is nocturnal enuresis?
Involuntary urination, especially bedwetting at night
What is one theory of why children experience nocturnal enuresis?
Disconnect her, because they could have a developmental delay in the normal pattern of increased vasopressin secretion at night
What does desmopressin and when is it used?
Desmopressin is a nasal spray which is a vasopressin derivative administrative bedtime. This is to prevent nocturnal enuresis
What is the countercurrent exchange system?
Anatomical arrangement of vessel, so that the flow in one vessel is in the opposite direction from the flow in the adjacent vessel
Where is the countercurrent multiplier found?
Loop of Henley
Where does sodium and potassium reabsorption take place in nephron
25% of the sodium and potassium reabsorption takes place in ascending limb of the loop of Henle
The NKCC, symporter, uses energy, stored in the blank concentration gradient to transport sodium potassium and two chlorides from the lumen into the epithelial cells of the blank
Sodium and ascending limb
Explain my patients, taking a loop diuretics that inhibits solute reabsorption excretes greater than normal volumes of urine
Solutes that remain in the lumen, when the NKCC symporter is inhibited force water to remain in the lumen with them. This increases the urine volume. 
Loop diuretics inhibit, the NKCC symporter are sometimes called the potassium wasting diuretics. Explain why people who are on loop diuretics must increase their dietary potassium intake.
Diuretics that inhibit the end KCC symporter, leave potassium in the to be a lumen, where it is likely to be excreted that’s increasing urinary loss of potassium

The higher you go, the ____ oxygen
Less
Oxidative, phosphorylation generates blank
ATP
High altitudes help low/high barometric pressure.
Low
Hyperventilation leads to respiratory blank 
Alkalosis,  it can also lead to hypocapnia (too little CO2) 
Hyperventilation, induces, blank, leading to respiratory blank
Hypercapnia, acidosis
Polycythemia
having a high concentration of red blood cells in your blood.
