Final Exam study

Question 1

Sampling- what is the population, target population, accessible population, and sample

Answer 1

Population: cluster of ppl ur interested in;
Target pop: entire group you want to study (must be scientifically justified and empirically supported);
Accessible pop: the group the researcher can actually measure since there’s all sorts of constraints to reaching the target pop, depends on the context of the research and the researcher’s resources;
Sample: subset of the accessible pop since they won’t all want to be part, the inds who actually take part in the research. It has to be representative of the larger pop.

Question 1

t/f- the sample can lead to limitations

Answer 1

true

Question 2

Sampling- What are inclusion and exclusion criteria?

Answer 2

inclusion: guidelines about who can participate (describe characteristics potential participants must possess), must be coherent with the research topic and be scientifically supported,
exclusion: guidelines about who cannot participate, ethical consideration should be given, reduce gathering irrelevant data, you should develop (or use a tested pre-made one) a brief questionnaire to evaluate their eligibility.

Question 3

what is sampling?

Answer 3

the process of selecting observations that will be analyzed for research purposes. includes reaching out to the accessible population and forming the sample. two main strategies: probabilistic and non-probabilistic

Question 4

sampling strategies- probabilistic. what is it, name the 4 types

Answer 4

Representivity and generalizability of target pop. random selection- everyone in the accessible pop has equal chances of being invited to participate. Simple random samples, systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling.

Question 5

sampling strategies- strengths (3) and limitations (3) of probabilistic sampling strategies

Answer 5

Strengths: representative samples, generalizability of results, less likely to be biased.
Limitations: resources needed limit feasibility (time, costs), requires high skill/experience because many steps and statistical analyses, many not represent minority groups bc they target generalizability of results and not specific characteristics.

Question 6

simple random samples- how to do it, probabilistic or non-prob., small or big studies, strength (1), limitations (2)

Answer 6

probabilistic.
develop sampling frame and list all accessible pop members, then number potential participants in an orderly manner, then randomly select inds using a random number table.
- small-scale study.
Strength: easy to understand
Limitation: hard to apply bc you have to know all participants, chance random sampling won’t represent every identity.

Question 7

systemic sampling- what is it? probabilistic or non, small or big studies, strenght (1), limitation (1)

Answer 7

• probabilistic,
  first develop sampling frame and list all accessible pop members, then randomly select inds using a systematic strategy (regular interval btwn participants, randomly selected and represented by ‘K’).
• Small studies
  Strength: clear and consistent framework
  Limitation: limited to small-scale/studies conducted on very specific and known populations

Question 8

stratified sampling- how to do it, probabilistic or non, strengths (2),

Answer 8

• probabilistic.
  first divide accessible pop into subgroups (ex. by gender), then draw a sample from each subgroup using random or systemic sample strategy.
  Strengths: makes sure people with certain characteristics are represented equally (esp when characteristics are less common) and will make sure you have at least a few individuals from each group.

Question 9

cluster sampling- how to do it, probabilistic or non, big or small sample, strength (1), limitations (2)

Answer 9

• probabilistic
  first divide the accessible pop into subgroups (‘clusters’, usually determined by shared characteristics), then select random clusters using a random number table, then sample all members from selected clusters.
• large pop/large sample.
  Strengths: good representivity of sample relative to the target pop
  Limitations: may lead to heterogenous (variance), which makes it hard to draw generalizable conclusions and clear results

Question 10

what are non-probabilistic sampling strategies, name the 4 types

Answer 10

describe, explore, or examine small groups, explore a phenom that is unknown/misunderstood, understand the perspective of particular inds, and develop an in-depth understanding of a phenom based on disscussions with people who live the experiences. The four types are purposive, snowball, quota, and convenience sampling.

Question 11

what are the () strengths and () limitations of non probabilistic sampling strategies

Answer 11

Strengths: fast and simple, inexpensive, targets people with specific experiences.
Limitations: higher risk of sampling bias, lack of representivity with the target pop, so the results can’t be generalized to target pop.

Question 12

purposive sampling- how to do it, probabilistic or non

Answer 12

first ID the perspective you seek regarding the topic of interest, then ID diversification criteria to find people with those experiences, then seek inds that respect those criteria and who can discuss the results.
- non-probabilistic

Question 13

snowball sampling- how to do it, probabilistic or non, strengths (3)

Answer 13

rely on initial participants to identify potential participants (ask them to spread the word to a pop that there is an ongoing study).
- non-probabilistic.
Strengths: reach stigmatized and hard to reach socially excluded groups, reach unfamiliar groups to the researcher, helpful for new researcher who doesn’t know much abt a particular group and how to approach them

Question 14

quota sampling- how to do it, probabilistic or non,

Answer 14

first ID categories important to study, then create subgroups based on each category, select inds from each category. “quota”: the number of participants wanted from each group. SELECTION OF PARTICIPANTS IS NOT RANDOM AND SHOULD REPRESENT THE GENERAL POP.
- non-probabilistic

Question 15

convenience sampling- how to do it, probabilistic or non, strengths (2), best for what kind of research

Answer 15

select inds who are easily accessible by physical proximity, availability of researcher, and available resources.
- non-probabilistic
Strenghts: takes less time to prepare, always feasible
- best for exploratory research

Question 16

what is sampling bias

Answer 16

when the selection of participants may be influenced by acces to invitation to take part in a research, recruitment strategies, personal interest from the participants.

Question 17

what do experiments do and what are their characteristics. is participant selection random or purposive

Answer 17

test hypotheses in controlled conditions.
- control over variables, control over the environment, control over participants
- selection by random assignment

Question 18

what are the goals of experiments

Answer 18

determine causal relationships between variables and explain relationships between variables.

Question 19

what are the variables in experiments (3), define them, what is factor, level, and outcome NEED TO UPDATE WITH SOME INFO

Answer 19

IV: manipulated by researcher to look at its effects on the DV, also called ‘factor’ in experimental studies (usually 1-2). The level is the value of the IV.
DV: and outcomes:
Confounding Variables: aren’t of interest and not measured, could influence the causal relationship ur trying to study, not always aware of it/them, want to eliminate- can harm results and their impacts may be attributed to the IV.

Question 20

what are the groups in experiments and how are participants assigned to them, what is a ‘test group’

Answer 20

• everything between the groups is the same except their exposure to the stimulus.
  Experimental: ‘test group’- exposed to stimulus/treatment/intervention u want to look at,
  Control: not exposed to stimulus and is meant to be a point of comparison to find if the stimulus is the cause of the effect or not.
• Random assignation: randomly assigned to each group meaning they have equal chances of being assigned to each group and their selection is independent from other participants. AIM to pre-test equivalence of groups and control over ind variables that could influence the results of the study. The groups being similar will reduce the effects of a confounding variable

Question 21

what are the 2 diff kinds of experiments called

Answer 21

within-subjects/group design, and between-subjects/group design

Question 22

what does the within-subjects/group design involve, what does it measure, strengths (1), limitations ( UPDATE INFO AND FILL INNNNNNN

Answer 22

• same participants are involved in repeated testing. Groups are called ‘conditions’ and are

Question 23

what does the between-subjects/group design involve, strengths (3), limitations (5)

Answer 23

more than one group of participants, diff groups take part in diff experiments based on random assignment, then the outcomes of the diff groups are compared. Groups are either experimental or controlled.
Strengths: carryover effects reduced (practice, time effects, etc.), limits fatigue effects, shorter duration of the study .
Limitations: requires large sample, which also requires more financial and human resources, and takes more time to find, recruit, and experiment on;, individual differences are uncontrolled, which can influence the outcomes

Question 24

quasi-experimental research- what does it do, how are participants assigned, what does it involve, (2) limitations, name the 2 types.

Answer 24

• tests causal relationships between variables,
• purposive recruitment
• usually involves field experiments (experiments that occur in real-life settings)
  Limitation/challenge: environment not fully controllable, can’t have a control group because it observes things irl BUT it is still possible to manipulate the IV by looking at people who have the characteristics.

Question 25

one-group posttest-only- what is it, (2) limitations, what kind of research does it belong to

Answer 25

• DV is measure after the treatment- so no control group
  Limitations: lack of control group makes it easy to misinterpret the results, and so you can’t be fully sure about what is causing the outcome.
• QUASI EXPERIMENTAL

Question 26

one-group pretest-posttset- what is it, (3) limitations, what kind of research does it belong to

Answer 26

• single group performs an experiment and the DV is measured before and after.
  Limitations: possibility of the effects of special events, maturation, and practice effects.
  -QUASI EXPERIMENTAL

Question 27

Non-experimental research- what is it, how are participants assigned, when is it useful

Answer 27

• does not manipulate an IV
• Purposive assignment (need participants who possess certain characteristics)
• useful when you can’t manipulate the IV and when exploring non-causal relationships

Question 28

what are the objectives of surveys (5)

Answer 28

• gather large amounts of data, and quickly, get details about a large population, to describe the characteristics of a pop or phenom, and to investigate the opinions and behaviours of a pop. ALSO USEFUL WHEN LIMITED RESOURCES.

Question 29

what are the diffs between surveys and questionnaires

Answer 29

Surveys: collect data about a pop, is a research method (process), involves statistical analysis and is used to draw conclusions, and takes longer to conduct.
Questionnaire: collects data about one person, is only a tool to gather information, does not involve a formal analysis, answers cannot be generalized to the pop, quickly administered.

Question 30

how are surveys administers

Answer 30

• self-administered either in hard copy or online, or
• administered by the researcher through a form of interview where the researcher reads the questions and answer options.

Question 31

what are the (6) strengths and (7) limitations of surveys

Answer 31

Strengths: gather lots of info in short time, reaches large pops, don’t have to do in person so easier to reach more divers profile, cost-effective and less time consuming, versatile so it’s adaptable so many social contexts, and sample is representative so results are generalizable.
Limitations: data collections relies on single instrument so if there’s a problem you can’t go back, forces people to choose btw predetermined questions which can be mis-interpreted, not understood, may not represent their POV, validity of the results (not represent POVs), risks of missing data, Participants often tended to answer based on social desirability (answer questions that make them look good), bias in persons who choose to participate.

Question 32

name the 3 types of surveys

Answer 32

cross-sectional, longitudinal, and retrospective

Question 33

what are cross-sectional surveys, what are 3 limitations

Answer 33

administered only once at a particular point in time, doesn’t consider evolution of a phenom and pops- so, (Limitations:) it gives a ‘stagnant’ picture, is difficult to generalize, and difficult to know is results apply long after the assessment

Question 34

what are longitudinal surveys, what is 1 limitation, name the 3 types

Answer 34

repeated observations through assessment over a long period of time (months-years), follows the same inds over time so there is RISk of attrition (may lose some participants over time, generally 70-80% must stay in the study for results to be accurate).
- Trend survey, panel survey, and cohort survey

Question 35

what are trend surveys

Answer 35

measures evolution and changes over time such as opinions, characteristics, and behaviours. They administer the same questions at different moments, but the interests are trends and not specific groups so respondents aren’t necessarily the same on each occasion.
- type of longitudinal survey

Question 36

what are panel surveys, and 2 limitations

Answer 36

audience is surveyed multiple times and it tracks changes in behaviours, attitudes, thoughts, etc. and the relationships between variables. The same persons participate in each assessment so there is high risk of attrition and can’t replace them, and is costly and requires a lot of resources.
- Type of longitudinal survey

Question 37

what are cohort surveys

Answer 37

tracks changes over time with the same questions, regularly surveys people of a same category of interest but not necessarily the same individuals (doesn’t have to be same people but need to have particular characteristics)
- type of longitudinal survey

Question 38

what are retrospective surveys

Answer 38

administered only once but ask questions about a series of past events

Question 39

What are some (4) characteristics of good survey questions

Answer 39

• clear & unambiguous (one idea per question), appropriate wording depending on the population and should be adapted to their capacity to understand the question, as neutral as possible to minimize bias and limit social desirability, and you should obtain feedback/pre-test the questions.

Question 40

what are (5) steps in designing effective survey questions

Answer 40

1. define the goal and purpose of the study,
2. get a clear idea of what you want to learn,
3. identify relevant questions,
4. brainstorm potential questions with a team,
5. organize potential questions

Question 41

what are (3) characteristics of good survey response options, give 2 examples

Answer 41

1. be one possible answer,
2. close-ended,
3. mutually exclusive (an idea cannot be represented in two choices)
   - ex. yes/no, likert scales with measure of agreement

Question 42

what is the purpose of correlational research (2) , when is it useful (3)

Answer 42

measure the relationship between variables and determine the direction and strength of the association between them.
-Useful when you’re looking for association or relationships between variables (not causal), when exploring unknown or potential relationships, and unable to manipulate the IV

Question 43

what does correlational research allow you to do (3) and what does it not allow you to do (3)

Answer 43

ALLOWS: to discover the relationships between multiple variables, DEVELOP theories or hypotheses, and establish reliability and validity of (quantitative) measurement tools.
DOES NOT ALLOW: you to infer causation, TEST hypotheses or theories, or explain why variables are associated.

Question 44

T/F- correlational research allows you to test theories, explain

Answer 44

false, it allows you to DEVELOP theories and hypotheses but not test them.

Question 45

how is wording different in correlational research compared to experimental, give examples

Answer 45

correlational studies need to use words where the variables are more on the same level, for example relationship, and not use words that infer causation like in experimental such as effect, impact, or cause.

Question 46

how do you recognize a correlational study (3)

Answer 46

1. the variables are NOT manipulated or controlled,
2. the relationship is bidirectional (both variables my influence each other instead of one causing the other), and
3. the variables vary together (don’t know/not the aim to know which variable came first, no specific order, no independent and dependent variables)

Question 47

how do you select variables in correlational studies

Answer 47

• natural variables,
• can select many in the same study,
• need to focus on variables that are concretely observable,
• and the variables need to be quantifiable and measurable (ex. close-ended questions with close-ended answers)

Question 48

how do you collect data in correlational studies? ASK ABOUT SLIDE AND UPDATE INFO

Question 49

what are potential results of correlational studies

Answer 49

1. Positive correlation: there is a relationship between two variables, the positive direction means as one variable increases do the others, represented by numbers +0 to +1
2. Negative correlation: as scores on one variable increase the others decrease, represented by numbers -0 to -1 (ex as you drink more alcohol you become less able to make accurate decisions.
3. no correlation: change in a variable is not associated with any change in the other variable, not able to make a clear line on the scatterplot diagram.

Question 50

T/F- you can select multiple variables in correlational studies, if false explain

Answer 50

true

Question 51

How do you interpret the results of a correlational study using a scatterplot diagram

Answer 51

the pearson’s coefficient (r) tells you the strength and direction of the correlation between two variables, closer to zero means the relation is weak, zero means no correlation at all, and closer to 1 indicated a strong relationship.

Question 52

what are the (3) outcomes of a correlational study

Answer 52

1. tells you if two variables are associated,
2. tells you the strength of the statistical analysis gives you the Pearson’s coefficient which is interpreted to see if the relationship exists and is weak or strong, and
3. tells you whether the correlation is positive or negative

Question 53

what are the (5) strengths and (4) limitations of correlational studies

Answer 53

Strengths:
- simple and easy to develop (questionnaires with close-ended questions and answers),
- easy to conduct and to gather data,
- can get large amounts of data quickly (ask lots of Qs at once)
- helps to ID the variables that are associated which may also guide future research,
- easy to analyze and interpret.
Limitations:
- can’t imply causation because of bidirectional relationship instead of linear,
-possibility of confounding variables,
- Linear relationship vs. dynamic (linear is when all dots increase in the same direction, or are all together like an upside down V, etc.- only give relevant results when the relationship is linear)
-limited range (needs enough variation in the data or else can be misrepresented, can be hard to find any relation if the variables are too limited. -Limited range may change results and mislead interpretations)

Question 54

what are the aims and objectives of qualitative approaches (2)

Answer 54

explore and understand new/complex phenomena and develop an in-depth understanding of a phenom from the perspective of the social actors concerned with the topic of interest.

Question 55

what is ethnography, where is it conducted, and what does it involve

Answer 55

field research for where the experienced phenomena can only be taken into account in the social context in which it occurs and with the subjective realities of each participants.
- conducted in the natural environment of the participants
- involves the observation of a phenom

Question 56

what paradigm is ethnography

Answer 56

social constructionist

Question 57

is ethnography deductive or inductive

Answer 57

inductive

Question 58

what are the (2) aims of ethnography and what does it study

Answer 58

1. in-depth description and understanding of a group and their ways of living by understanding from within
2. to answer ‘how’ questions.
   - to explore or seek to understand the activities and processes, behaviours of individuals and groups, the meaning attributed to certain activities, the social interactions (ex. hierarchy), and group communication (ex. How culture is transmitted).

Question 59

when would you use ethnography (3)

Answer 59

1. when a phenom is unknown or understudied,
2. the characteristics of a group are misunderstood,
3. the target pop is not easily accessible

Question 60

what are 6 things to consider when choosing a site in ethnography

Answer 60

1. choose a site based on potential research questions,
2. based on a research topic,
3. exposure to the behaviours, attitudes, and processes of interest,
4. an accessible location,
5. respect the time that you have to conduct the research (pop has to get used to you which may take long- esp for certain groups),
6. distance and travelling

Question 61

t/f- you always have to choose a role in ethnography, explain

Answer 61

false- you might not have to choose a role because it won’t always involve interviews and instead just be observations of the researcher so might not have to introduce yourself, but if you do introduce yourself you need to choose a role- either overt or covert researcher

Question 62

what are the two roles in ethnographic research- define each and describe their strengths and limitations

Answer 62

OVERT: open about being a researcher, good to avoid moral/ethical dilemmas, but bad because it may make them mistrust you (esp with stigmatized groups who don’t trust institutions), and the participants may behave differently, also may take longer to get them to trust you).
COVERT: don’t disclose role of researcher, good for developing relationships faster, getting more information, and getting to experience the phenom, but bad bc there’s the risk of being uncovered and losing their trust.

Question 63

name the two data collection strategies used in ethnographic research

Answer 63

Observation and interviews

Question 64

ethnography- observation- what should you observe?

Answer 64

observe anything that has to do with the research topic and the pop of interest- environmental characteristics such as sounds, impressions, housing and safety; and observe the target population such as their ways of behaving, social relationships, emotions, etc.

Question 65

ethnography- what are the 2 types of observation and describe them

Answer 65

NON-PARTICIPANT: passive observation where the researcher has no interference with the participants.
PARTICIPANT: researcher is part of the studied group/community and experiences the phenom

Question 66

what are field notes used for in ethnographic research- why are they important

Answer 66

they record observations. Can be done through writing sentences, notes, drawings, photos, etc.
They constitute a database and are important because the researcher will be exposed to many new info and observations and will be on the site for a long time, so they need to fill them in as fast and frequently as possible to represent the data you are collecting and not forget.

Question 67

ethnography- name the 4 different types of field notes

Answer 67

1. descriptive,
2. analytical,
3. methodological,
4. personal thoughts, emotions, and experiences

Question 68

ethnography- what are descriptive field notes

Answer 68

what the researcher sees, describe the environment of the target pop, what the pop does, aim to describe the state of the environment where you conduct the research, contain observations that could be looked at by anyone who could go on the site- not up for interpretation. Reflect what you see clearly

Question 69

ethnography- what are analytical field notes

Answer 69

the researcher’s impressions about their observations/interpretations of the observations, develop reflections about how things occur. First step of analysis- may think about an explanation for the behaviours you’re observing in provision to how you will do the analysis later.

Question 70

ethnography- what are methodological field notes

Answer 70

any evolutions or changes to the research methodology (ex. R questions, data collection tools, themes you may want to explore). Helps you remember the decisions you made during the process and why you made those decisions. Ethnography is an inductive type of research so methodology may evolve throughout the research.

Question 71

ethnography- what are personal emotions, thought, and experiences in field notes

Answer 71

the researcher will be exposed to many new things, in the case of participant observation they may write about how they felt while conducting the research

Question 72

Interviews in ethnography- what are the two types and explain

Answer 72

INFORMAL: spontaneous, unstructured, flexible, and in the natural environment.
FORMAL: planned, generally semi-structured (have pre-developed questions), in a private space, more adaptive if you want to look at more personal issues/thoughts/emotions.

Question 73

ethnography- when does data analysis occur, what does it consist of

Answer 73

• an ongoing process that starts during data collection (analytical notes) and is iterative with data collection.
• type, read, and reflect about the notes, become very familiar with the data, and then code the data using qualitative statistical software (ex. Nvivo) that allows to categorize information into big chunks and reduce data to smaller amounts that are more relevant, then look for emerging themes.

Question 74

what are the outcomes of ethnographic research (3)

Answer 74

1. obtain a holistic understanding of a group or culture such as understanding their way of living,
2. understand how to develop interventions that are adapted to their context and needs, and
3. generate a new theory

Question 75

what are the (5) strengths and (4) limitations of ethnographic research

Answer 75

Strengths:
- privileged access to real life situations (which can help to understand a complex phenom properly),
- study a phenom in its real social context (find things you wouldn’t be able to in lab),
- observe social interactions and processes,
- uncover subconscious behaviour,
- highly flexible
Limitations:
- large amounts of details (time consuming),
- small samples,
- very demanding for researcher (requires travel and relocation, must spend most time in the environment, may develop close relationships with participants which may be challenging and pose ethical dilemmas upon leaving),
- heterogenous data sources (can be difficult to decide which is more important/should be considered more)- and so data is selected subjectively from a large amount since the researcher has to choose this.
Limitations:
- Large amounts of details (time consuming),
- small samples,
- very demanding for the researcher (has to move, travel, spend most time there, may develop close relationships which could be hard when leaving),
- heterogeneous data sources (have to choose which is more important which falls on the researcher so also subjectivity in data selection).

Question 76

T/F- semi structured interviews are a research method, explain

Answer 76

false, they are a data collection technique

Question 77

are semi-structured interviews inductive or deductive

Answer 77

inductive or mixed (both)

Question 78

what are semi-structured interviews

Answer 78

a ‘conversation’ between the researcher and participant that uses open-ended questions, usually held face-to-face and individually. It involves a combination of predetermined themes/questions and emerging questions. Normally in a private space such as a lab or university, but since COVID there have been more virtual interviews.

Question 79

When are semi-structured interviews useful (3)

Answer 79

when studying a complex or unknown or misunderstood phenom, when you need to gather very detailed, nuanced, and in-depth information, and when you need to obtain a contextualized understanding of a phenom such as understanding the impact of a particular social context.

Question 80

semi-structured interviews- what do you need to do before, during, and after the interview

Answer 80

Before: develop an interview guide which consists of a list of topics (3-6), potential open-ended questions (10-15 for interview of approx 1-2 hours), and potential follow-up questions. Then pre-test the interview guide and practice.
During: record the interview, perform active listening, guide the interview from the discourse of the participant- guide the order of questions/topic (let participants answers flow), make sure they only talk abt their own experiences, ask spontaneous follow-up questions, be empathetic and sensitive, accept silences and breaks.
Immediately after: offer support through resources, debrief on how they feel about the interview and what they think, if there’s anything they want to add, and ensure the well-being of the participant.

Question 81

T/F- data analysis in semi-structured interviews starts after they are all done

Answer 81

false, it is often iterative to data collection.

Question 82

how do you analyze data from semi-structured interviews

Answer 82

transcribe recordings, analyse them using qualitative analysis software or develop a coding grid. Inductive and deductive, there will be pre-determined and new emerging themes, categorize data by theme. The outcome will be that you identify and explain the themes that best answer your research question.

Question 83

What is a focus group

Answer 83

a group made up of individuals with certain characteristics who focus discussions on a given issue or topic. A qualitative data collection method. Group interview.

Question 84

what are focus groups useful for (3)

Answer 84

useful to
1. gather in-depth knowledge (attitudes, perceptions, beliefs, opinions) in a social context,
2. gather info about unknown/misunderstood topics,
3. collect data from marginalized communities.

Question 85

what should focused groups be used to do (6)

Answer 85

1. discuss processes and norms of a group,
2. have the opinion of a group on a topic (that is mostly experienced by the group/pop ur studying),
3. consider the interactions between members of a group,
4. understand what underlies their opinions and motivations,
5. develop and test research/intervention/ political material,
6. to complement other research methods.

Question 86

what are 3 important things to consider when planning focus groups, explain

Answer 86

1. Time- should take abt 2 hours but should adapt to participants (ex. children need shorter and more).
2. Location/setting- must be easily accessible, safer space, organized for discussions, free from interference.
3. Questions- need to develop an interview guide of about 5-6 open-ended questions and follow up questions. The questions should refer to general experiences and promote group dynamics and interactions

Question 87

What are the two roles in focus groups, what do they do

Answer 87

1. Facilitator- develops a relationship with participants, creates warm and welcoming environment, ask questions, promote participation and interaction from all participants, manage interactions between participants, listens and learns, pays attention to the verbal and non-verbal cues, and addresses issues/conflicts.
2. Observer- records the discussion, listens and observes, takes notes about themes discusses and interactions and verbal and non-verbal cues (notes help interpret data), time keeper, and manages of distractions.

Question 88

what are (4) tips to facilitate discussions in focus groups

Answer 88

1. carefully place participants,
2. manage participation (who is talking too much or not enough),
3. make sure everyone is heard and respected,
4. if they don’t participate find creative and engaging means such as drawing, writing, or arts, and then ask questions about these alternative productions.

Question 89

what parts of focus group data analysis are similar to other quali data collection methods, what are specific

Answer 89

Similar: iterative data collection and analysis, and transcribing discussions and code all identifying themes.
Specific: analysing interactions such as points of agreement/disagreement, conflicts, changes in opinions, and evolution of the discussion

Question 90

what are (8) strengths of focus groups and (6) limitations

Answer 90

Strengths:
1. gather lots of data quickly,
2. small costs,
3. empowerment of a group,
4. more implication from the participants,
5. discussions and interactions bring new responses that aren’t otherwise possible,
6/7. inclusive and safer space in group with similar people- more likely to trust eachother and open up more.
8. consider non-verbal communication which is important to guide follow-up questions and important for analysis bc you can note how ppl felt about a certain topic.
LIMITATIONS:
1. difficult to plan,
2. dominant voices,
3. potentially intimidating,
4. compromised confidentiality,
5. risks of lacking depth in the data,
6. quality depends on the researcher’s skills/experience

Question 91

why is critical thinking important

Answer 91

helps analyse and evaluate research objectively. It’s important to identify research gaps and limitations, correctly interpret research results and understand how they were obtained, and to improve future research by guiding it and knowing what mistakes to avoid.

Question 92

what is scientific rigor

Answer 92

the process by which we ensure a research is conducted with sufficient rigor so that the results are accurate and credible. It represents the means that we take to ensure the high quality of a study and to solve and prevent potential methodological issues.

Question 93

what are the aims of qualitative studies and scientific rigor in quali studies

Answer 93

quali studies aim to account for subjectivity, participants’ perspectives and context. Scientific rigor aims to ensure the quality of the research process while respecting the objectives of qualitative research.

Question 94

what are the 2 points of scientific rigor in QUALI studies and what are they

Answer 94

1. CREDIBILITY- accuracy, relevance and correspondence between the data and their interpretation, take into account the subjectivity of the participant, and take into account the subjectivity of the researcher and how it impacts the research process.
2. TRANSFERABILITY- the ability to transfer the research results to other inds. It isn’t typically the aim of quali research but can be achieved under certain circumstances

Question 95

Scientific rigor- What are the means to ensure credibility in QUALI studies (6)

Answer 95

1. use a flexible and iterative approach so you can identify and fix potential issues,
2. transcribe the data exactly based on the recording to ensure you don’t miss any data/info and reduce the risk of relying on memory to interpret the data,
3. use examples of data extract to support the results.
4. also need to take into account the natural context of the phenom by contextualizing the data and providing a detailed in-depth analysis and description of the context where the phenom occurs,
5. Data triangulation (having multiple sources of data and convergence of their results- is not necessary but is very good for credibility,
6. reaching EMPIRICAL SATURATION should be applied in ALL qualitative studies, which is where the data collection brings no new information- NEED TO REACH THIS POINT

Question 96

Scientific Rigor- what are the means to ensure transferability in Quali studies (2)

Answer 96

1. detailed description of the participants’ characteristics,
2. detailed description of the context/environment in which the study is conducted bc results can only be transferred to similar environments.

Question 97

scientific rigor- what is external validity (quanti studies) and what does it depend on

Answer 97

the capacity to generalize of apply the results to other inds, groups, contexts, periods of time. It depends on the extent to which the sample is representative of the larger population. Utilizes random sampling

Question 97

what are the aims of quantitative studies. What are the two points of scientific rigor in quanti studies

Answer 97

quantitative studies aim to produce objective research to uncover precise relationships between variables (correlational or causal).
- EXTERNAL and INTERNAL VALIDITY

Question 98

scientific rigor- what is internal validity (quanti studies) and what does manifest through

Answer 98

the extent to which the data are trustworthy, and the extent to which bias/errors are present in the data. This manifests through the way we select participants, the way they’re assigned to a control/experimental group, and in the way we measure and analyse the variables (measurement tools).

Question 99

why is referencing important

Answer 99

it is important to cite sources to identify who suggested the idea/concept/theory, recognize the contribution of other individuals/researchers, avoid plagiarism, and contextualize our thoughts and the development of a project.

Question 100

what is a research proposal and what are they commonly written for

Answer 100

plan of research and step-by-step explanation of how a researcher will conduct a research. These are commonly written for ethical approval, scientific evaluation, scholarships, and grants.

Question 101

what are the goals of a research proposal

Answer 101

to explain a research problem (convince the project is needed), justify the need to study the research problem (with scientific support), and suggest a method to conduct the research including the participants and sampling, research approach (quali/quanti), data collection tools and analysis strategies, and potential outcomes of the research.

Question 102

what are the 5 components of a research proposal and explain

Answer 102

1. introduction- rationale behind the importance of the pop and topic, explain the problem and why it’s important and needs to be addressed, the research design and method and expected results, context of the issue (incl def of key concepts), literature review- classify info by theme and have sub-section of ur critical analysis of the lit.
2. research design and method- show the research will allow to address the problem, show what you’ll do and how and justify each decision with scientific support, identify and justify the pop, eligibility criteria, recruitment site and strategies, sampling strategies, sample size, and ethical statement, identify and justify the methodological approach and explain the data collection methods and tools, explain and justify data analysis techniques such as software and types of analyses.
3. expected results- for quanti studies this would be the potential response to the hypotheses, for quali studies it would be to know more/better understand the phenom. Also includes implications
4. conclusion- should highlight the importance of the proposed study, explain how it’ll contribute to knowledge in your field, and highlight the most important implications of the study.
5. references

Question 103

Sharing the research- how much should you share, what should you share, who should it be shared with, how should it be shared

Answer 103

• share enough info so others can understand, constructively criticize, replicate, and build on the study.
• should share honestly the strengths and challenges such as what worked well, what could be improved, and what could be done differently.
• should be shared with other researchers/academics, key stakeholders concerned by the topic such as policy makers, community organizations and service managers, knowledge users, and the general pop.
• adapt how you share to who ur sharing it with including the language and format.