Final Exam Shit Flashcards
Science
systematic approach organizes knowledge of the physical world (universe) in the form of -expectations -predictions that can be tested
Contemporary Science
Natural Sciences
Social Sciences
Formal Sciences
Natural Sciences
study of natural phenomena (chem, bio, physics, geology)
Social Sciences
Psychology, sociology, human geography
Mathematics
objective and systematic approach (similat to science)
Relies on priori (theory) rather than empirical methods
How are science and math similar
- researchers separate the knowns and the unknowns at each stage of discovery
- models must be consistent and capable of disproof
- their work can inspire each other
Scientific Method
- Understanding- characterization from experience and observation
- Analysis- hypothesis (proposed explanation)
- Synthesis- deduction (prediction of hypothesis)
- Review/Extend- test and experiment
High Confidence Science
Repeatable Directly Measurable and Accurate Results Prospective, interventional study Avoids bias Avoids Assumptions Sober judgement of results
How to read/review a scientific journal
skim article
reread article more carefully
read “materials and methods” and “results” sections multiple times
Investigative Questions (when looking a journals)
What did the author do? Why did the author conduct research? How did they research? What did they find out? What do the findings means?
Quantative Reasoning
Combines basic math skills with the ability to approach problems in a critical and analytical way
Logical Argument
me @ all my friends
arguments use a set of FACTS or ASSUMPTIONS called PREMISES to support a CONCLUSION
Arguments fail because of
fallcies
Fallacy
error in reasoning
ex. the fact that you think im gonna kiss you ;)
Appeal to Majority
many people believe this is true therefore it is true
False Cause
A came before B, therefore A caused B
Appeal to ignorance
lack of knowledge
there is no proof that X is true, therefore X is false.
Hasty Generalization
A and B have been linked a few times, therefore A always causes B (or visa versa)
Limited Choice
purposefully leaves out choices that couldve been considered
A is false therefore only B can be true
Appeal to emotion
Premise is a associated with a positive emotional response, so it must be true
Personal attack
aka.
Steven @ Kathryn :’(
“I have a problem with the people/ group proclaiming X, therefore X is not true.”
Circular Reasoning
Premise and conclusion say the same thing
ex. Society has an obligation to ensure food security because secure access to food is a right to those of society.”
Building block of arguments are____.
Whats the structure of ____.
A) Propositions (p) = a claim that may or may not be true
ex. Stephen does anal on fridays.
B) Propositions have the structure of a complete sentence and must make a complete assertion or denial
Negation (not p)
Are considered propositions because they are complete sentences.
If a propsition is true then the negation is false and visa versa
Logical Connectors
and, if…then, or
join two propositions
Logical Equivalence
Two statements share the same truth values: if one is true, so is the other, and if one is false, so is the other
Conditional Proposition
if P then Q
if….then….
if you are eating then you are breathing
Converse Proposition
if Q then P
if you are breathing then you are eating
Inverse propostionve
if NOT P then NOT Q
if you are not eating then you are not breathing
Contrapositive
if NOT Q then NOT P
if you are not breathing then you are not eating
Set
collection of objects
individual objects are members of a set
written within { }
Categorical Propositions
what does it contain?
Claim a relationship between two sets.
One set is the subject of the sentence (S) and the other is the predicate (P)
ex. no S are P
no legumes are cereals
Arguments have two basic forms:
- Inductive
2. Deductive
Inductive Argument
makes a case for a general coclusion from more specific premises
Cannot prove its conclusions are true, so it must be evaluated in terms of strengths.
Strong iductive argument shows that its conclusion is probably true
Deductive Argument
makes a case for a specific conclusion from more generak premises.
analyzed on terms of validity and soundness.
Unit analysis
the technique of working with units to help solve problems
adding fractions
multiplying
division
adding- find common denominator
multiplying- multiply top by top, bottom by bottom
division- multiply by reciprocal
“kilowatts-hour” indicates what operation
HYPHENS indicate multiplication
m, kg, s, L
indicate which unit system
metric
0K= ___ Celsius
0K= -273.15 Celsius
aka absolute zero
Celsius to F equation
F = 1.8C + 32
F to Celsius equation
C = (F - 32) / 1.8
Four Step Problem Solving Process
- Understand the problem
- Devise a strategy for solving the problem
- Carry out your strategy and revise if necessary
- Check, interpret and explain result
Three ways of using percentages
- Express a fraction of a total
- 5/100 = 10.5%
- Described a change
50% increase in corn sales over the past three years - Comparison
Barley costs 4.55% more than wheat
absolute change
describes actual increase or decrease from a reference value to a new value
absolute change = new value - reference value
relative change
size of the absolute change in comparison to the reference value can be expressed as percentage
relative change = new value - reference value/ reference value x 100%
absolute difference
actual difference between the compared value and the reference value
absolute difference= compared value - reference value
relative difference
size of the absolute difference in comparison to the reference value and can be expressed as percentage
percentage points
refers to ABSOLUTE change or difference
% sign indicates:
indicates RELATIVE change or difference
scientific notation
best for large numbers
number between 1-10 multiplied by a power of 10
3042= 3.042 x 10^3
Problem solving perspectives
- Estimation
- Comparison
- Scaling
order of magnitude
estimating within a broad range of values
“in the tens of thousands” or “in the millions”
Dealing with uncertainty
(“am i gay :O” - Stephen S. 2k17)
-Significant digits
Sig Digs
the digits in the number that represent actual measurements
Types of Errors
aka. kathryns birth :/
- Random (kathryn)
- Systematic
- Absolute
- Relative
systematic error
problem in the measurement system that affects all the measurements in the same way (all too high, or all too low)
absolute error
how far the measured value falls from the true value
absolute error = measured value - true value
relative error
size of the absolute error to the true value. often expressed as a percentage
relative error = measured value - true value / true value x 100%
accuracy
how closely a measurement approximates a true value
precision
the amount of detail in a measurement
Combining Measured Numbers
- Addition/ Subtraction
- Multiplication/ Division
Add/ Sub- round to the same precision as least precise (??)
Mult/ Div- round to the lowest number of sig digs
Subjective (purposeful) sampling
non-random
Simple random sampling
chose a sample of items in such a way that every sample has an equal chance of being selected
Systematic Sampling
using a sampling system such as selecting every 10th or 50th member of a population
Stratified (Stratified Random) Sampling
method of sampling when researcher is concerned about differences among subgroups or strata(?) within a population
treatment group
group who receive treatment being testes
control group
do not receive treatment being testes
margin of error
used to describe a confidence interval that is likely to contain the true population parameter
confidence interval
add and subtract margin of error from the sample statistic
ex. statistic = 76%
margin of error = 3%
Confidence interval ranges from 73% and 79%
nominal text
text variables that are for categorial variables which have text representation and NO meaningful numeric value
ex. variable- gender with the values Male or Female ** triggered >:( ***
nominal variables
categorial variables which have numeric value
ordinal variables
like nominal variables, except the values have a specific order
ex. scale where 1= strongly agree and 5= strongly disagree
continuous variables
variables exist on a continuous scale
ex. height, weight
relative frequency
the fraction of the data values that fall in that category
relative frequency = frequency in category / total frequency
cumulative frequency
number of data values in that category and all preceding categories
two ways to present data (visually)
- Tables
2. Graphs
maximum
the maximum value in a set
median
the middle value when the values are placed in numerical order
ex. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
median=3
mean
average
mode
the value or set of values that occur most frequently
central limit theorem
a mathematical theorem that states that the distribution of proportions from many samples of the same size is approximately a normal distribution (referred to the sampling distribution)
percentile
is the percentage of all data values in a data set that are less than or equal to it
null hypothesis
It is often the value expected in the case of no special effect
alternate hypothesis
is the claim that is accepted if the null hypothesis is rejected
Interpretation
- Type I Error
- Type II Error
Type I- when we reject the null hypothesis when its true
Type II- when we accept the null hypothesis when its false
