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GEO1220 > Final Exam Review > Flashcards

Final Exam Review Flashcards

1
Q

Name the 3 most important concepts in geology.

A
  1. Geologic Time
  2. The Rock Cycle
  3. Plate Tectonics
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2
Q

Name the “Spheres of the Earth” and the composition of each.

A 
Atmosphere (Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide)
Hydrosphere (H2O)
Cyrosphere (Frozen H2O)
Geosphere/Lithosphere 
Biosphere
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3
Q

Describe Earth’s Composistion

A

Crust (Oxygen, Silicon, Iron)
Mantle (Mostly Iron & Ultramafic Rock)
Core (Inner Core = Iron, Outer Core = nickel-iron alloy)
8 elements constitute over 99% of Earth’s mass (Oxygen 47%, Silicon 28%, Aluminum 8%, Iron 5%, Calcium 3.5%, Sodium 3%, Potassium 2.5%, Magnesium 2%, all other elements 1%).

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4
Q

Who proposed the theory of Continental Drift?

A

Alfred Wegner

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5
Q

List evidence n support of the theory of Continental Drift. Why was it ultimately rejected?

A

Rock & Fossils from continent to continent
Continental Shelf/Coasts
Glacial Deposits in the Southern Hemisphere
Rejected due to a lack of a force responsible for the movement of the continents.

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6
Q

List evidence in support of Plate Tectonics.

A

Fossil Evidence
Sea Floor Magnetism
Direct Measurement through GPS and VLBI.

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7
Q

Describe the average rates of lithosphere plate motion

A

Rate of spreading along the Mid Atlantic Ridge is ~ 2.5 cm/yr.

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8
Q

Describe a convergent plate boundary, provide an example, and explain the geological features associated.

A

Actively deforming region where two plates collide, causing one plate to subduct. As a result, common geo features associated include: trench, accrectionary wedge, volcanic arc system (due to martial melting of subducted plate). An example would be the Washington-Oregon Coastline where the Juan de Fuca plate is subducting beneath the N America continental plate.

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9
Q

Describe a DIVERGENT plate boundary provide an example, and explain the geological features associated.

A

Exists when two plates are moving away from each other. Geo features associated include; rift valley. Example: Mid-Atlantic Ridge

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10
Q

Describe a TRANSFORM plate boundary and provide an example, and explain the geological features associated

A

Exists when two plates are “sliding” past one another. Produces off-set geo features (ie river beds that have been off set). Example: San Andreas Fault in CA

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11
Q

Explain the difference between a NORMAL fault and a REVERSE fault

A

A normal fault is when the hanging wall drops down due to strain (pulling apart). A reverse fault is when the hanging wall moves up due to stress (pushing together).

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12
Q

Composition of an ATOM

A

protons + neutrons, nucleus + electron cloud. Equal protons but a different number of neutrons/atomic mass = isotope

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13
Q

List/describe types of CHEMICAL BONDS

A

IONIC BOND: transfer of an electron from one atom to another
COVALENT BOND: Most common; involves the sharing of electrons between atoms.
POLAR BOND: Two atoms connected by a covalent bond may exert different attractions for the electrons in the bond, producing an unevenly distributed charge
HYDROGEN BOND: Because they’re polarized, two adjacent H2O (water) molecules can form a linkage known as a hydrogen bond,

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14
Q

Define MINERAL

A

A solid inorganic substance of natural occurence

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15
Q

Define POLYMORPH

A

A specific crystalline form of a compound that can crystallize in different forms.

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16
Q

List the major mineral groups

A

Silicates, Oxides, Sulfates, Sulfides, Carbonates, Native Elements and Halides.

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17
Q

Explain Texture/Composition as it related to IGNEOUS ROCKS and provide examples.

A

Texture relates to how large the individual mineral grains are in the final, solid rock. In most cases, the resulting grain size depends on how quickly the magma cooled. In general, the slower the cooling, the larger the crystals in the final rock. Course grained - intrusive (granite, gabbro, diorite), fine grained - extrusive (ex basalt, andesite, obsidian).
Composition: the elements in the magma directly affect which minerals are formed when the magma cools. Magmas associated with crustal spreading are generally mafic, and produce basalt if the magma erupts at the surface, or gabbro if the magma never makes it out of the magma chamber. It is important to remember that basalt and gabbro are two different rocks based purely on textural differences - they are compositionally the same.Felsic magmas, the final purified result of the differentiation process, lead to the formation of granite (intrusive) or rhyolite (extrusive). Intermediate magmas produce diorite (intrusive) and andesite (extrusive).

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18
Q

List/Describe the Categories of SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

A

Inorganic: precipitated out of water (limestone, rock salt, dolomite)
Clastic: Made out of existing rock (conglomerate, breccia, sandstone)
Biogenic: made from organic material (fossiliferous limestone, chalk, coquina)

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19
Q

Explain the difference between CONTACT and REGIONAL metamotphism

A

Contact metamorphism is a type of metamorphism where rock minerals and texture are changed, mainly by heat, due to contact with magma.
Regional metamorphism is when rock minerals/texture is changed by heat/pressure over a wide area/region.

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20
Q

Explain the difference between FOLIATED and NONFOLIATED metamorphic rocks.

A

Foliation in geology refers to repetitive layering in metamorphic rocks. Each layer may be as thin as a sheet of paper, or over a meter in thickness. (Ex: gneiss, phylite, schist)
Examples of non foliated: hornfells, marble, quartzite

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21
Q

List/Describe the important STRATOGRAPHIC PRINCIPLES (RELATIVE AGE DATING)

A

Superposition: undisturbed rock strata is deposited in layers, youngest on top oldest on the bottom.
Original Horizontality: layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally.
Lateral Continuity: states that layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions; in other words, they are laterally continuous
Cross-Cutting Relationships: an igneous intrusion is always younger than the rock it cuts across
Baked Contacts: When an igneous intrusion occurs, the rock that was intruded is often heated around the intrusion to the point that it becomes contact metamorphosed
Unconformities: a surface of contact between two groups of unconformable strata
Fossil Succession: based on the observation that sedimentary rock strata contain fossilized flora and fauna, and that these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific, reliable order that can be identified over wide horizontal distances.
Biostratigraphy: concerned with fossils and their use in dating rock formations

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22
Q

List/Describe the important principles in NUMERICAL AGE DATING

A 
Radiometric Dating: a method of dating geological or archeological specimens by determining the relative proportions of particular radioactive isotopes present in a sampl
Atomic Structure: 
Isotopes
Carbon Dating
Ice Cores
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23
Q

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY vs BIOSTRATIGRAPHY vs CHRONOSTRATIGRAPHY

A

Lithostratigraphy a sub-discipline of stratigraphy, the geological science associated with the study of strata or rock layers
Biostratigraphy the branch of stratigraphy concerned with fossils and their use in dating rock formations
Chronostratigraphy the branch of geology concerned with establishing the absolute ages of strata

24
Q

Describe Walthers Principle

A

If sediment A is succeeded vertically by sediment B without an unconformity between them, then sediment A will also be succeeded horizontally by sediment B in some direction.

25
Q

Explain the importance of sea level changes and the predicted sequence of rock layers.

A

A transgression or sea level rise will produce a vertical sequence of facies representing progressively deeper water environments (a deepening-upward sequence). As a result, a transgressive sequence will have finer-grained facies overlying coarser-grained facies (fining-upward from sand at the bottom, and then to silt, and then to shale). This is sometimes referred to as an onlap sequence
A regression will produce a sequence of facies representing progressively shallower water environments (shallowing-upward sequence). As a result, a regressive sequence will have coarser-grained facies overlying finer-grained facies (coarsening-upward). This is sometimes called an offlap sequence

26
Q

List/Describe the main types of UNCONFORMITIES

A

Noncomformities: separate igneous or metamorphic rocks from overlying sedimentary rocks.
Angular Unconformities: an older package of sediments has been tilted, truncated by erosion, and than a younger package of sediments was deposited on this erosion surface.
Disconformity: also an erosion surface between two packages of sediment, but the lower package of sediments was not tilted prior to deposition of the upper sediment package

27
Q

List/Describes the MODES OF PRESERVATION for fossils

A

Permineralization: “to spread minerals throughout.” Original composition remains, minerals fill porous spaces (ex petrified wood)
Unaltered Remains: Composition is unaltered due to permafrost, amber, or bogs.
Carbonization: soft tissue are preserved as carbon
Recrystalization: rearrangement of mineral crystals. composition does not change, only the mineral structure.
Replacement: exchange of the original substance with mineral matter of a different composition
Casts: empty/vacant area is filled with a new substance, such as minerals or mu, and solidifies.
Internal Molds: The imprint of the internal structure is left behind.
External molds: the imprint of the external structure is left behind.

28
Q

List/Describe the two modes of cell division.

A

Mitosis: parent nucleus divides to produce to diploid daughter nuclei
Meiosis: cells divide to produce sex cells (single cell divides into 4 cells)

29
Q

Describe ORGANIC EVOLUTION

A

The process by which changes in the genetic composition of populations of organisms occur in response to environmental changes.

30
Q

Who is Jean-Baptiste Lamarck and what was his theory?

A

Proposed the Theory of Inheritance of Acquired Characteristics which theorized that If an organism changes during life in order to adapt to its environment, those changes are passed on to its offspring.

31
Q

Who is Charles Darwin and what was his theory?

A

Proposed the Theory of Natural Selection which theorized that Animals more suited to their environment survive longer and have more young.

32
Q

Who is Gregor Mendel and what was his theory?

A

Developed three Principles of Inheritance by experimenting with pea plant breeding.

33
Q

Describe HOMOLOGY and provide examples

A

similarity in sequence of a protein or nucleic acid between organisms of the same or different species (ex arm of human, wing of bird or bat, etc).

34
Q

2 Main points of Darwin’s book “Origin of Species”

A

1) diverse groups of animals evolve from one or a few common ancestors; 2) the mechanism by which this evolution takes place is natural selection.

35
Q

What is the essence of the theory of natural selection?

A

1) inescapable conclusion: unequal reproductive success

2) product of natural selection is evolution

36
Q

Explain the NEBULAR THEORY

A

the theory that the solar and stellar systems were developed from a primeval nebula (gravity contracts a gas cloud - conservation of angular momentum pulls cloud into a disk - disk begins to rotate - central mass (sun) forms - centrifugal force balances gravitational forces and rings form - rings form planets)

37
Q

Describe the composition of THE SUN

A

The sun is mostly composed of Hydrogen (75%) and Helium (25%). Fusion is the process that powers the sun and the stars. It is the reaction in which two atoms of hydrogen combine together, or fuse, to form an atom of helium. In the process some of the mass of the hydrogen is converted into energy.

38
Q

Describe the formation of THE EARTH

A

The Earth is thought to have been formed about 4.6 billion years ago by collisions in the giant disc-shaped cloud of material that also formed the Sun (accretion) followed by the separation of components within Earth during or after assembly (differentiation). ~4.4 Ga

39
Q

Describe the formation of THE MOON an evidence in support of this.

A

The giant-impact hypothesis, sometimes called the Big Splash, or the Theia Impact suggests that Earth’s Moon formed out of the debris left over from an indirect collision between Earth and an astronomical body the size of Mars, approximately 4.5 billion years ago, in the Hadean eon. Evidence: size/mass of the moon compared to Earth, composition of the moon

40
Q

Characteristics of the JOVIAN PLANETS

A

the Jovian planets do not have solid surfaces. Instead, they are composed primarily of hydrogen and helium, with traces of methane, ammonia, water, and other gases in their atmospheres. (Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune)

41
Q

Characteristics of TERRESTRIAL PLANETS

A

Terrestrial planets also have a molten heavy metal core, few moons, and topological features such as valleys, volcanoes and craters. In our solar system, there are four terrestrial planets, which also happen to be the four closest to the sun: Mercury, Venus, Earth and Mars

42
Q

Characteristics of minor members of the solar system (asteroids, comets, meteoroids, Pluto…)

A

Asteroids: mostly between orbits of Mars + Jupiter
Meteroids: rocky/metallic composition with unusual orbits
Comets: small chunks of ice with very unusual orbits

43
Q

Explain the BIOGENESIS PARADOX and the 4 stage hypothesis for LIFE ON EARTH

A

Biogenesis Paradox: life is derived from life (living organisms develop only from other living organisms and not from non living matter).
4 stage hypothesis for life on earth:
1- generation of large organic molecules (ie amino acids)
2- development of polymorphs (strings of organic molecules ie chain of amino acids)
3- development of self-replicating molecules with an inorganic catalyst like pyrite (ie DNA or RNA)
4- formation of pre-cells

44
Q

Describe characteristics of PROKARYOTES

A

Prokaryotes lack an organized nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell called the nucleoid. The cell wall of a prokaryote acts as an extra layer of protection, helps maintain cell shape, and prevents dehydration.

45
Q

Describe WILSON CYCLES

A

AKA Ocean Basin Evolution - Stable Craton - Early Rifting - Full Ocean Basin - Subduction Zone - Closing of Ocean Basin - repeats

46
Q

Describe AULACOGEN

A

In geology, an aulacogen is a failed arm of a triple junction of a plate tectonics rift system. A triple junction beneath a continental plate initiates a three way breakup of the continental plate.

47
Q

Main points of the Paleproterozoic

A

Gowganda (first “ice age”)
Extensive BIFs (banded iron formations)
Stromatolites flourish (a solid structure created by single-celled microbes called cyanobacteria (blue-green algae). The cyanobacteria form colonies and trap sediment with their sticky surface coatings. The trapped sediment reacts to calcium carbonate in the water to form limestone.)
Evolution of first Eukaryotes

48
Q

Main points of the Mesoproterozoic:

A

Grenville Orogeny and the assembly of Rodinia (first super continent)
Diversification of Eukaryotes (acritarchs flourish)
Evolution of sex

49
Q

Main points of the Neoproterozoic:

A

Dis assembly of Rodinia (Uinta Series)
Varangian Glaciation
First multicellular eukaryotes (metazoans, eumetazoans, parazoans)
The Ediacaran Fauna

50
Q

Main points/evens of the Paleozoic

A

“Cambrian Explosion” - relatively short evolutionary event, beginning around 542 million years ago in the Cambrian Period, during which most major animal phyla appeared, as indicated by the fossil record
Lagerstatten - fossil deposits rich in varied, well preserved life from a particular era. Example: konzentrat

51
Q 
Describe the following sequences:
Sauk
Tippecanoe
Kakaskia
Asaroka
A

Sauk (cm/o): shallow water deposition (due to the Sauk Sea) primarily consisting of well-sorted sandstones and clastic carbonates.
Tippecanoe (o/s): Erosion on the Craton after Sauk sequence, followed by deposition of sandstone and carbonate. Ended with a regression in the late Devonian.
Kakaskia (D/C): Major unconformity seperated the Tippecanoe and Kakaskia sequences, widespread evaporite and carbonate strata such as the Williston Basin in Canada.
Asaroka (C/Tr): sedimentary deposits were dominated by detrital or siliclastic rocks. The first sediments were deposited near the continental margins, particularly near the Ouachita and Appalachian highlands. Characteristic of the strata from this time are cyclothems: alternating marine and non-marine strata indicative of changes in sea-level, probably due to cyclic glaciation in the Southern Hemisphere.

52
Q

Describe the formation of BARRED BASINS

A

A partially restricted sedimentary basin, where free movement of waters is impeded by the presence of a rock sill or sediment barrier. This restriction often results in anoxic or oxygen-poor waters, or, in arid areas, in evaporite deposition.

53
Q

Describe the formation of CYCLOTHEMS

A

cyclothems are alternating stratigraphic sequences of marine and non-marine sediments, sometimes interbedded with coal seams.

54
Q

Describe MILANKOVITCH CYCLES

A

Milankovitch cycles refer to long term variations in the orbit of the Earth which result in changes in climate over periods hundred of thousands of years and are related to ice age cycles

55
Q

Describe the 2 main theories for MODERN HUMANS

A
  1. Multiregional Theory: Homo Erectus evolving in Africa and spreads to other continents ~1.8ma - simultaneously evolve in different regions to Homo Sapien due to continued migration/interbreeding and mixing of gene pool
  2. Replacement Theory: Homo Erectus spread from Africa to other continents ~1.8ma - population only survives in Africa, homo sapiens evolve only in Africa and migrate from africa ~ 100ka. Most data supports this theory

GEO1220 (4 decks)

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