Final Exam Review Flashcards
1
Q
The Prisoners’ Dilemma
A
2 people - both arrested and accused of a crime, interrogated separately and offered a deal: stay silent or defect from other player - Outcomes: both defect = longer sentence, both cooperate = reduced sentence, one defects = defector gets 0 years while other gets longer sentence
2
Q
N-Person Prisoners’ Dilemma
A
more than 2 people - any situation in which each member of a group can either take a small benefit for herself (defect), or provide a larger sum of benefits that will be spread out over many other members of the group (cooperate)
3
Q
The Tragedy of the Commons
A
there is a common resource that no individual owns, many have access to and can exploit it but if they over-exploit it then it would be bad for everybody (conflict of ind. benefit v. group benefit)
4
Q
Psychological Egoism
A
every human is never self-denying (all humans are selfish)
5
Q
Motivational Realism
A
most people are pretty selfish most of the time
6
Q
Prosocial Punishment
A
the act of punishing individuals for behaviors that undermine group cooperation or fairness, even at a personal cost (humans find significance in cooperation from others)
7
Q
Kin Selection
A
the evolutionary concept that explains why individuals may act altruistically toward their relatives, even at a personal cost (want shared genetics passed onto future generations)
8
Q
Reciprocal Punishment
A
form of social enforcement - system where individuals punish others who undermine group cooperation, with the expectation that others will reciprocate and also punish free riders
9
Q
Mencius’ example of the child about to fall into a well
A
AGAINST PSYCHOLOGICAL EGOISM- man sees a young child about to fall into a well, he would be moved to compassion to help - we, as humans, have an innate moral concern for others (not about getting in good graces or the child’s cry is annoying, etc.)
10
Q
moral relativism
A
what one believes to be true about morality for them
11
Q
moral isolationism
A
you should not criticize another culture or judge them in any way, can’t fully understand other cultures so you can’t judge something you don’t fully understand (doesn’t count for things that are universal like killing/stealing/lying)
12
Q
varieties of moral relativism (Individual vs. Cultural)
A
i - whatever YOU believe about morality is true for you
c - whatever your culture believes about morality is true for you (regardless if you personally agree with it
13
Q
various arguments against moral isolationism/relativism
A
i - others can criticize us, we can praise others so why can’t we judge, we need to learn from other cultures, must understand in some way if we can describe them
r - (C) individuals have more than one culture, can’t make sense of moral progress/change (I) violent/eccentric beliefs, can’t understand realizing that you were wrong
14
Q
the argument from disagreement
A
in favor of moral relativism, the widespread and persistent differences in moral beliefs across cultures and individuals imply that moral judgments are relative rather than objective
15
Q
John Stuart Mill
A
(1806-1873), Utilitarianism, wrote “On Liberty” (what freedom means to him), “Considerations on Representative Govt.” (defense on democracy)
- also wrote “The Subjection of Women” defending feminism
16
Q
Consequentialism
A
there’s a purpose of morality, something morality is for -to make things better and produce good outcomes
17
Q
Utilitarianism
A
subspecies of consequentialism, source of all moral reasons is the welfare of sentient beings, which rule or policy would have the best consequences for ALL
18
Q
Hedonism
A
the only thing that intrinsically matters to you is happiness with the absence of suffering
19
Q
Subordinate Principles
A
specific moral rules or guidelines that can be derived from the principle of utility, which is the core principle of utilitarianism
20
Q
Partiality v. Impartiality
A
P - caring about their own thing vs others (their race over others, their gender, etc.)
I - not being biased (not just choosing yours over theirs)
21
Q
Arguments for hedonism
A
Everyone wants to be happy in some way or another
22
Q
Arguments against hedonism
A
-fails to differentiate between QUALITY of pleasure (high v. low), overlooks other important elements of human life like personal growth and social relationships
-hedonically grey world (happiness isn’t the only valuable thing in life), -insufficient in explaining human moral behavior (we don’t always act to better our own happiness)
23
Q
Mill’s “proof” of utilitarianism
A
‘desirable’ doesn’t mean ‘can be desired’, fallacy of composition (wrongly believing that what’s true for parts must be true for the whole), each person’s happiness is a good to THAT person, what abt general happiness (individual v. aggregate)
24
Q
Deontology
A
what is right and wrong is based off of rule, fall in line of rule not the consequences of act
25
Immanuel Kant
argues duty is based solely on reason, reason provides the foundation of which duty rests - from East Prussia, a man of organization and regularity of habits, rejects utilitarianism and Aristotle
26
Categorical Imperative v. Hypothetical Imperatives
c- something binding on you no matter what you want, doesn't depend on desire
h- doing something on the condition that you want something else
27
Maxims
what you think you're doing and why you think you're doing it (action and reasoning), like a personal rule used when making a decision
28
Acting in accordance with duty v. acting from duty
accordance is following the right course of action but not always with moral reasons, from duty is where your motivation aligns with moral law itself
29
Formula of Universal Law
act in a way that you can will that the maxim of your action should be universal law
30
Formula of Humanity
never treat anyone as mere means, but as ends in themselves (don't use people)
31
Kant’s arguments against lying promises and against stealing to get rich
both go against FUL and FH, lying contradiction- would be no such thing as a promise if everyone lied, stealing- would never be able to secure property or financial security if everyone is stealing
32
The arm-chopping maniac
FUL plausible- not acting from reason, doing so because they feel like it, nobody would trust you
33
The aesthetic ear-chopping maniac
FUL implausible- thinks it looks good, would want it done to themself
34
The choice of profession
FUL implausible- we can't all have the same job
35
The car ornament
FUL implausible- if everyone has the same ornament, the method wouldn't work
36
The toy train
FUL implausible?
37
Using someone as a means vs. using someone as a MERE means
means(acceptable)- interacting with someone to get something you want without violating their autonomy (not treating them as a tool)
mere means(not acceptable)- usually deceptive or coercive, treating them in a way just to serve you like they have no intrinsic worth or autonomy
38
the Kantian understanding of benevolence as an imperfect duty
imperfect duty- morally binding but doesn't require constant fulfillment, we do have the moral obligation to promote the benevolence of others, but we're not required to do this at every given moment- just as long as you give enough
39
Act-utilitarianism and Rule-utilitarianism
act- an action is morally right if it produces the greatest good in a situation
rule- the rightness of an action is determined by, whether it conforms to a rule that, if universally followed, would lead to greatest overall happiness
40
the disaster clause
In a disastrous scenario, like the trolley situation, strict adherence to deontological principles may be swayed or adjusted in the nature of the situation, and it be justified (break rules if necessary to prevent disaster)
41
killing vs. letting someone die
morally distinct actions, difference of intentions and duties, killing is wrong as you are actively causing harm, letting someone die could be seen as moral in certain situations
actively killing is worse than failing to act, but omissions still have moral weight
42
killing as a side effect vs. killing as a means
differ in intent and moral permissibility, killing as a means is wrong as it goes against FH, whereas killing as a side effect could be permissible if it's an unintended consequence
Intention is key here
43
accommodation vs. reform as strategies for defending utilitarianism
a- defense as it shows how utilitarianism can fit or align with deontological aspects, like rights or duties, without sacrificing happiness maximization
r- modifying utilitarianism to incorporate deontological considerations like rights and duties, more hybrid theory
(1- figure out which rules would have the best consequences if mostly followed, 2- follow those rules but break them if necessary to prevent disaster
44
the elevator button
should you press the button to save yourself but end up killing an innocent person in that building? if you don't press it, you could die
Util. argument
45
the murderer at the door
hiding a person, a murderer at the door asking if you're hiding someone. do you lie to save them and break moral principles of truth-telling or tell the truth and likely lead the person to death?
46
the switch and the footbridge
switch- pulling a switch to kill one person or five (trolley)
footbridge- pushing someone on the tracks to stop the train killing the one over the 5
difference of personal involvement
utilitarians think you should push the guy with the backpack (footbridge)
Kantians think you should pull the switch
(classic utilitarians see no difference in either)
47
the inhospitable hospital and the wilderness medical outpost
hospital- limited resources in the hospital, either treat the sickest patients first or everyone equally but risking the sickest patients
wilderness- used one person's limbs to save five others, but that one dies
Kantian argument
48
the circular trolley track
pull the switch and kill one, or do nothing and let it kill the five? in a circle though so if you pull it, it will return to the regular track afterward
49
David Hume
regarded as most important philosopher to ever write in English, helped "awaken" Kant, is a "photo-utilitarianist", huge influence on Bentham and other utilitarians, theory of private property closely related to utilitarianism
50
John Locke
Glorious Revolution (1688-89), Lockean Proviso, self-ownership, state and law of nature, large parts of declaration of independence taken from Locke- life, liberty, and pursuit of happiness
51
the circumstances of justice
justice is only binding on us some of the time, doesn't always apply
1. applies only when beneficial to society
2. best explanation of (1) is that justice applies only because it is beneficial to society
3. justice applies only because it is beneficial to society
52
Hume's theory of property rights
closely related to utilitarianism, justice is a virtue in respecting other people's property rights
53
the diminishing marginal utility of money
the richer you are the lesser getting a fixed amount of money would have an impact on your wellbeing
54
the state of nature
condition of perfect freedom or equality governed by natural law, no formal authority, social cooperation/contract
55
the law of nature
a fundamental concept that governs behavior in the state of nature. It is a moral law derived from reason that dictates how individuals should treat one another, particularly concerning their natural rights, Locke believes it's ordained by God, Hume rejects this
56
the social contract
agreement among people to form a society and establish a government to protect everyone's rights and interests
57
the Lockean proviso
If you mix your labor with unimproved natural things, they become yours as long as you leave as much and as good for others
58
Hume's argument from the circumstances of justice
justice comes from human needs, people realize they need to establish social conventions (like property rights or fair distribution), justice is a social convention that helps maintain social order, people form social construct to better society
59
Hume's critique of equality of results
diminishing marginal utility of money, lack of incentive argument
60
comparison of North and South Korea as an argument for property rights
South Korea- economic success, innovation, and high standard of living are largely due to the protection of private property, democratic
North Korea - communist, no private property, terrible human rights, their economy exports limited amounts of resources, stagnant economy
(both started from total devastation)
61
the incentive argument
inequalities of wealth and social status motivate people to work, strive, and contribute to society's prosperity. If all individuals were guaranteed equal results regardless of their efforts, talents, or contributions, the incentive to exert effort or to take risks would be significantly diminished
62
Locke's main argument for private property
1. You own your body
2. You own your labor
3. If you mix your labor with unimproved natural things, they become yours- (Lockean Proviso) as long as you leave as much and as good for others
63
Karl Marx
historical materialism (many aspects of society are influenced by the way people in society produce and distribute the things they need to live, sees history as dominated by class struggle, capitalism
64
the proletariat and the bourgeoisie
p- working class
b- class that owns the means of production
65
the immiseration of the proletariat
wages will fall due to tech. change, and workers will become desperate for any wage, even if below the biological minimum
66
Engels' pause (c. 1800-1840)
tech. of production is improving and wages are not rising
67
the Marxian principle of distribution
from each according to their ability, to each according to their needs
68
Sunkara's definition of capitalism
unequal pay for no good reason, competition forces bosses to treat workers badly
69
Sunkara's definition of social democracy
simple, unconditional, generous public programs
70
Sunkara's definition of socialism
worker co-ops, limited inequality
71
Marx's argument for the inevitability of revolution
- Bourgeoisie gets fewer and fewer
- Proletarians get more and more numerous
- conditions of working-class get worse over time
- can't be reformed, because the government is working for the capitalists
72
the Twentieth Century Motor Company
* Socialism asks too much of us
* Incentivize needs and you get more of them
* People will conceal their abilities
* Undignified and humiliating
* Gives leaders enormous power
* Bad people want to be leaders
73
Rand's critique of the Marxian principle of distribution
principle of distributing wealth based on need rather than ability undermines personal responsibility, individual freedom, and the incentive to create and innovate. a just society is one in which people are rewarded according to their contributions, not their needs
74
Sunkara's argument for transitioning from social democracy to socialism
A transition to socialism, characterized by economic democracy, worker control, and international solidarity, is necessary to create a fairer and more just society. Only socialism can dismantle the power structures that maintain economic exploitation and inequality
75
Edmund Burke
Reflections on the Revolution in France, favored the American Rev. but strongly opposed French Rev., economic freedom with a role for govt., right to be restrained from making certain mistakes
76
Thomas Paine
wrote Common Sense & American Crisis, supporter of French Rev., all are born free and equal with undoubted natural rights, need for revolution (get rid of Kings and set up 3 forms of govt.)
77
Burke's conception of politics as a tradition extending across generations
politics is not a project of abstract theorizing or radical experimentation but a duty to honor and protect the inheritance passed down from previous generations and to ensure that this inheritance was passed on intact to those who will come after us.
78
Gratitude as a political virtue
criticism of Revs. from Burke - don't respect what has come before them, unlikely to preserve the good before them
79
Burke's criticisms of revolutionaries as political actors
*ungrateful - don't respect what has come before them, unlikely to preserve the good before them
* bad citizens who don't care about improvements, "Heightening the contradictions"
* poor reformers, because they see only the negative side of institutions
* too interested in theories
80
Paine's argument for democratic revolutions
grounded in the belief that all people have inherent natural rights and that any government that infringes upon those rights, particularly through monarchy or aristocracy, is illegitimate. advocates for democratic republics as the proper form of government, where power rests with the people and is exercised through elected representatives
81
Burke's argument from limited knowledge for gradual reform
because individuals and societies have limited knowledge of the complex, often hidden interconnections within political, social, and economic systems, attempts to radically transform society based on abstract principles are highly dangerous
82
Burke's argument that the French Revolution would lead to a military dictatorship
radical upheaval—like the one brought about by the French Revolution—would destroy the necessary structures for maintaining order and stability. The revolution's descent into violence and terror would lead to chaos, which could only be resolved by the imposition of military authority.
83
John Rawls
20th century, equality, fairness, and justice, Political Liberalism, Theory of Justice
84
The original position
hypothetical social contract, establish principles of justice for the basic structure of society, veil of ignorance for unbiasedness, parties are rational, don't care about each others' interests
85
the veil of ignorance
removing all knowledge of one's circumstances (gender, race, wealth, etc.) and having them choose the principles of justice for society so they are completely unbiased
86
reflective equilibrium
a process of adjusting and balancing our general principles to reach a state where they are in harmony with each other- an understanding of morality
87
the two principles of justice
1. equal basic liberties for all citizens
2. economic inequalities must be (a) reasonably expected to be at everyone's advantage and (b) offices + positions are open to all
88
the baseline of equality
the minimal level of equality or fairness that should be ensured in a society
89
formal equality of opportunity vs. fair equality of opportunity
formal- everyone has the same legal rights
fair- same legal rights with the same actual chances
90
Rawls' definition of injustice
inequalities that aren't to the benefit of everyone
91
the difference principle
economic inequalities should be arranged to the greatest possible advantage to the worst off
92
Rawls' critique of pre-institutional desert
playing by the rules and winning doesn't mean the rules are fair
93
the Pareto argument for inequality
inequalities can be justified if the distribution leads to some being better off but no one being worse off
94
Robert Nozick
1938-2002, an advocate of natural rights libertarianism
95
libertarianism
the role of government should be limited to protect individual rights
96
negative rights vs. positive rights
n- rights to have something NOT done to you
p- rights that assure something be done for you or given to you
97
negative freedom vs. positive freedom
n- freedom from interference or coercion (to be left alone)
p- freedom to achieve full potential, have proper capacity and resources to do so
98
libertarian conception of equality as equal negative rights
the only natural rights we have are negative rights; positive rights exist only bc of people's choices (like deals)
99
entitlement theory
Justice in Acquisition and Justice in Transfer in order to be legitimately acquired
100
historical principles of justice vs. patterned principles
h- the way resources get to be owned depends on things that happened in the past, or who produced the resources
p- dictate the distribution of goods in society in accordance with some sort of pattern (ex., that maximizes happiness in society)
101
Nozick's critique of the baseline of equality
things start out owned, no central distributor in a free society, against fair equality of opportunity, patterned principles ignore right to give things, home tutoring
102
Nozick's argument against socialism
socialism would be unfree, people should be free to work less rather than pay taxes for redistribution, redistributive taxation means others are part owners of you
103
Nozick's appeal to the Formula of Humanity
never use someone as mere means, can't coerce people (can't force billionaires to pay more for poor people), should people be allowed to emigrate?
104
Wilt Chamberlain argument
people pay to see him play and over time he sustains a large sum of money, if no one was coerced and these are voluntary exchanges, then the redistribution is just even if unequal
105
Nozick's objection against fair equality of opportunity
unnecessary intervention from the state, state intervention violates individual rights and is coercive
106
Rawls' critique of Nozick
move away from conditions in which free + fair agreements are possible, says Nozick has too much emphasis on individual rights, focus on removing inequalities
107
The alcoholic father example
the child has substantially less chance to do well in life due to an alcoholic father, Rawls thinks society should compensate and justice requires removals of arbitrary disadvantages
108
collective property vs. common property
collective- owned by a collective entity like an association or state
common- shared by a community or group, with no single owner
109
housing vouchers
govt. program designed to assist low-income families in obtaining affordable housing by providing financial support
110
rent control
govt. imposed regulations that control how much landlords can charge for rent
111
economies of agglomeration
the benefits that firms and individuals gain by being located close to one another. These benefits arise from the proximity of businesses, services, labor markets, and infrastructure, which can lead to increased efficiency, lower costs, and improved productivity for firms in these clusters
112
why homeowners would be likely to support strict local building restrictions
property value protection, avoiding overcrowding, limited resource competition
113
Waldron's argument that the homeless lack negative freedom
lack negative freedom because their lives are shaped by a system that actively excludes them from exercising their basic freedoms
114
possible advantages of housing vouchers
(doc. from govt. where you only have to pay 30% of the rent) increased housing choice and flexibility, reduced concentration of poverty, tenants never see money from govt. so they won't be tempted to skip over rent
115
Tabarrok's case against rent control
causes housing shortages, reduces the economic incentive to build more housing, and quality deteriorates with lack of maintenance
116
negative consequences of zoning and other building regulations
increase housing costs, reduce affordability, limit housing supply, inefficient land use
117
Plato's theory of the three parts of the soul: reason, middle part, appetitive part
reason, spirit, appetite
118
the oligarchic city and the oligarchic person
person- ruled by money-making appetites and desires
city- (after timocracy, when values shift from honor to wealth) ruled by the rich and the few, out for themselves, leads to corruption
119
disadvantages of oligarchy
cares about wealth, not virtue, poverty causes crime, contains educated unemployed youths
120
Mill's utilitarian arguments for democracy: security of interests, moral education, effects on character
sec.- security of individual interests depends on individuals being able & disposed to defend them so you should give them the vote
moral edu.- need education system that teaches reasoning, ethics, and civic responsibility to contribute to society
effects- active (dem.) vs passive (dict.), encourage autonomy, increase civic responsibilities
121
argument that democracies are richer; why this fails to support democracy
argue that a nation is prosperous because they're a democracy - this is wrong, what if causation goes the other way (democratic because it's rich)
122
Amartya Sen on democracy and famine
never been a famine among the voting citizens of a functioning democracy- if you give people the right to vote for what they want, you can protect them better from things like starving to death
123
democracy and massacres
In most democratic 25% of countries have 0.1% of massacre deaths
124
the democratic peace thesis
Weart- Never At War, well-established (3 years tolerating political dissent) democracies never fight war against each other
125
the democratic city and the democratic person
city- people have a say, treat people equally even when they aren't, second worst after tyranny
person- grows up without order or discipline, ruled by random and constantly changing desires
126
necessary vs. unnecessary desires; lawless unnecessary-desires
difference is what's needed for basic well-being
lawless- not only unnecessary but also disconnected from reason and moral law (come from the appetitive part of soul-extreme indulgence)
127
the tyrannical city and the tyrannical person
city- stirs civil wars against the rich, mobilizing against the "so-called fine and good people", may have to kill good people
person- exploits people, shameless, unnecessary desires, treats everyone as less than
128
Plato's concerns about democracy
too much freedom leading to the exact opposite (tyranny), no respect for elders, no discipline, reject people who try to practice self-discipline
129
Plato's ship analogy
Ship owner- voters
ship- city (or society as a whole)
sailors- politicians
true captain - expert (philosopher)
130
Plato's animal-tamer analogy
animal tamer is like the rulers/philosophers, must be able to govern different aspects of people's souls like the tamers control behavior, subdue wild instincts and appetites, people w/ exceptional potential can turn out especially bad
131
the isolated slave owner
slave-owner isn't afraid of slaves because he knows he has the other free citizens to defend him, but if him and his family and slaves were placed in a deserted location with no other free people, his slaves would likely try to kill them
132
the Montgomery Bus Boycott(1955-56)
Rosa Parks, arrested in Dec. 1955, triggered large-scale refusal of riding busses, MLK as chosen leader, weeks without using the busses, company had to settle lawsuit and laws changed
133
Morgan v. Virginia (1946)
requiring stature of desegregation on interstate busses, federal govt. has power to regulate interstate commerce (override JC laws)
134
the Freedom Rides (1961)
mixed race group would get on bus in D.C. and try to ride it to New Orleans together, eat lunches together, what mostly happened in VA and NC was places caved and let them be but as they traveled deeper into south, they attracted more publicity- mobs attacked them but influenced other groups to follow
135
the Albany Movement (1961-62)
source of power of nonviolent resistance, sheriff in Albany, GA, decides to respond without over-the-top violence, treats protestors with respect, tells KKK to back off
136
Birmingham, 1963
business leaders traveled to other parts of world to make business deals and people reacted based on news reports, being from Birmingham made them look bad, which pressured them into desegregating downtown businesses
- King also gets arrested after desegregation protest, writes letter from jail, police respond w/ extensive violence
137
the Civil Rights Act of 1964
signed by Lyndon B. Johnson, eliminates JC laws (15th amendment not effectively enforced at the time, right for AA to vote)
138
principled vs. strategic nonviolence
principle- pacifism (inherent value of nonviolence)
strategic- tactical consideration to achieve specific goals
139
King's views on the nature of nonviolent action
moral philosophy, practical strategy, resistance to evil not the opponent (love the other side)
140
moral jiu-jitsu
using the opposing's sides attack against them
141
black power critique of nonviolence
naive strategy that undermines racism, no hope for justice through integration (need separatism), makes black people dependent on white
142
King's replies to the black power critique of nonviolence
violence fails and leads to high casualties, overcomes habits of submission and defense, regain dignity through nonviolence
143
advantages of nonviolent resistance
undermines assumptions about a group's criminality, violence distracts from primary message, moral jiu-jitsu, shames the oppressors
144
ethical universalism vs. ethical particularism
u- relations to others don't affect our obligations to them
p- we have a greater moral objection to those with closer relations to us
145
useful convention account of particular duties
easiest and most helpful to help those who are closer to us as we know they need in better detail
146
voluntary creation account of particular duties
you are free to enter any associations, but once you do you are subject to the rules and obligations of membership
147
nationality vs. citizenship
nationality is not a voluntary choice, citizenship takes in fair play
148
imagined communities
the way members of a community are bound together through ideas and experiences, it's 'imagined' because not everyone will meet everyone else
149
loyalty and reciprocity
loyalty and reciprocity are not the same, you have mutual loyalty to a close-relation group
- not everyone can reciprocate the same action (tutor to student ex.), they can help another way though like in a diff. skill you lack
150
principle of fair play
we enjoy the great things we have in the US because we all follow the law to create a good society, would be unfair for you to accept benefits and not do your part
151
Miller's argument about the relation between nationality and redistribution
obligations to co-nationals cause and make sense of, redistribution due to the moral obligations we have as a community
152
critique of ethical universalist understanding of moral agency
cultural relativism argument, moral particularism argument, is anything universal?
153
MacIntyre's arguments for patriotism
can only be moral together, goods made possible by a moral life- are enjoyed in a community, liberal society can only survive if defined by patriots
154
Miller's response to Singer
nationality is morally significant, national solidarity provides a stronger moral foundation for redistributive policies within the nation
155
identity, affective, and reflective cosmopolitanism
(cosmopolitanism is the idea that moral obligations extend beyond national and local boundaries)
I- how you see yourself as a global citizen connected to broader world community
A- about the emotional connection with people from different countries
R- reasoned reflection about responsibilities we have to people outside of our nation
156
circles of concern
range of who we should care most about or pay the most attention to
innermost (self & immediate relationships)
middle (national & political community)
outermost (global community)
anything outside is environment and non human animals
157
the paradox of hedonism
the more obsessed you are about pursuing your pleasure, the less likely you are to experience it (or at least to the extent you want)
158
sophisticated hedonism
pleasure best achieved indirectly, comes from deeper/more complex sources, long term over short terms
159
Pettit's definition of consequentialism
do whatever best promotes the objective values that are at stake
160
reflexive neutral values
neutral in the sense of not favoring any particular viewpoint but are also reflexive in the sense of being open to revision or critique
161
constructive vs. unconditional patriotism
cons.- love country while also recognizing and addressing flaws to improve
unc.- unquestionable loyalty to one's country
162
selective vs. universal forms of conscientious objection to military service
sel.- refusal to participate in military service based on objection to specific wars or military actions, rather than to military service in general
univ.- complete and consistent refusal to participate in any form of military service, based on the belief that all forms of war are inherently immoral or unjust
163
Nussbaum's arguments for cosmopolitanism education
helps us know ourselves better, intrinsically valuable-responds to what really matters, more likely to solve global problems if we understand others better, equal respect to Americans requires cosmopolitanism
164
the Chinese immigrant
need to actually have the capability to live a dignified life, support from policies and society, uses the immigrant to show we need to all have equal opportunity
165
Santideva's impartiality argument
true compassion should be given to everyone because we all seek happiness, not just given to those who are closest to us
166
energy policy
167
the Mafia family
while the mafia family does not necessarily interfere with your life constantly, you are still subject to their arbitrary power. You are not free in the republican sense because the mafia has the ability to dominate you at any moment, even if they choose not to exercise that power immediately
168
Parfit's argument that common-sense morality is directly collectively self-defeating
if everyone follows common-sense morality, it can undermine the goal, no obligation to cooperate if all others defect
169
global energy policy
170
the Kaya identity
emissions=P*G*I*E
p-population
g-GDP per capita
I-energy intensity of GDP
E-carbon intensity of energy production
171
approaches to mitigating climate change: population-centric, moral/spiritual, economic/technical
population-centric
g-moral/spiritual (degrowth)
i&e-economic/technical (invest in clean energy, abundance agenda)
-change our consumption by changing our hearts
-change our production processes by changing our incentives
172
lukewarmer view
climate change is happening but 'probably won't be that bad'
173
potential harms from climate change
air pollution kills 9m ppl/year, heat waves/exhaustion, rising sea levels, more intense natural disasters, ocean acidification
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Ritchie's definition of sustainability
meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs
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Vallier's argument for why natural rights libertarians should support carbon tax
not allowed to damage others' property, required to pay compensation - climate change could violate property rights
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HH pope francis' arguments against merely technical solutions
solves one problem and creates another, technical solutions deal merely with symptoms, species have intrinsic value- tech. doesn't
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Ritchie's arguments for economic growth
more money means we can pay for climate solutions, as our economy has grown, more people live and the world literacy rate has grown
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falling price of renewable energy technologies-learning curves
the cost of these technologies have fallen because people's experience in making them or knowledge about them is dissolving
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the green vortex
actions aimed at resolving environmental problems can lead to even more problems
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the intermittency problem
the challenge that comes with variable nature (wind power but don't have constant wind)- use natural gas peaker plants, generate high amounts of energy from natural gas in times of demand
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subsidies for green technologies
money from govt. or large body to assist so the price of something remains low or competitive (solar power, clean hydrogen, etc.)
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carbon taxed and cap-and-trade systems
tax- set a price and let the market set the quantity
c&t- set a quantity and let the market find the price
(for carbon)
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regulatory and permitting obstacles to clean energy -NIMBY
NIMBY (not in my backyard) will sue to delay projects
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argument that a stable climate requires technical solutions
the problem is too big- tech will be the quickest fix, allows economic growth without causing more problems, tech reduces mining burden, need tech to reach zero for climate to stabilize
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arguments for and against nuclear energy: cost, land use, no intermittency
for: uses less land
against: expensive, regulation too strict, pause leads to loss of construction expertise
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the political argument for the "all carrots" approach
motivate only positive action- subsidies, reducing emissions, tax credits
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forward-looking justifications of punishment: deterrence (specific v. general), incapacitation, rehabilitation
(utilitarian approach)-morally acceptable because it has good consequences
d(specific)- one person deterred
d(general)- everyone else is deterred
i- removes dangerous people from society and protects the rest
r- don't wanna commit crimes for any other reason than you don't want to be arrested again
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retributivism
backward-looking punishment, looking at what happened in the past and responding to that wrongdoing (punished because they deserve it)
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pure retributivism vs. moderate retributivism
p- only backward-looking considerations
m- both good consequences + backward-looking considerations
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Gregg v. Georgia
(1976) - upheld the death penalty and created strict guidelines for when used
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Perlmutter's arguments for retributivism
consent-based=criminal chose their punishment by choosing the crime and expresses respect=treats them as less if not punished
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punishing the innocent objection, and the utilitarian response to it
what if we end up punishing an innocent person? conditional probability argument (what are the odds?)
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Mill's utilitarian argument for the death penalty
does better on general deterrence, death is inevitable and frightening
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retributivist arguments for and against the death penalty
for: severity of punishment should fit the gravity of the offense, passion for revenge into the legal system
against: execution violates human dignity
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Reiman's case against the death penalty
there are just some things we can't do even if criminals deserve them b/c of who we are, expansion of the moral circle, refusal to inflict certain punishments makes us more civilized (as long as not less safe)
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moral standing and moral status
standing: does it have moral concern (can it suffer, reason, think, etc.)
status: degree of moral consideration it should receive (just as important, less important?)
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unitarianism v. hierarchy
u- all of them matter the same
h- animals have their own levels of importance between one another (dog>horse>fly)
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principle of equal consideration of interests
the interests of all beings should be considered equally, no matter the species
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treating with equal considerations vs. treating the same
considerations- equal weight of interests
treating the same- applying the same rules or actions no matter the species
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the drowning human and the drowning mouse
which is more morally significant to save? Kagan recognizes animals' moral interests but also the moral weight that humans have
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ethical omnivorism
justification of eating animals, as long as we treat them with respect while they are still alive
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meat-eating and climate change
we must reduce harm to the environment and to animals, we have an obligation to sustain what we have
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distributive principles: egalitarianism, prioritarianism and sufficientarianism
how things should be allocated & how we prioritize welfare
e- all equal
p- prioritizing the worse off
s- ensure basic needs are met, that's it
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class of arguments called reductio ad absurdum(latin); prasanga(Sanskrit)
reductio ad absurdum: reduction for absurdity-lessening animal rights
prasanga: context/example/occasion/incident
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the boys burning a cat for fun
not okay to do because we see the action as immoral to harm them
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the space station world
only enough resources in station to suffice a limited amount of people - 1/3 live great, the other 2/3 suffer
-exploiting animals for human benefit
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Kagan's reductio argument against unitarianism when conjoined with distributive principles
e- animals equal to humans
p- priority to help non-human animals
s- ensure animals' basic needs are met
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Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization
(2022) overturned Roe v. Wade, no constitutional right to abortion, returned to state control
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the 14th amendment
-Anyone born or naturalized in the U.S. is a U.S. citizen and a citizen of the state where they live.
-States cannot make laws that take away the rights or protections of U.S. citizens.
-States cannot take away a person's life, freedom, or property without a fair legal process.
-States must treat everyone equally under the law.
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unenumerated rights
rights not explicity in the Constitution (Roe v. Wade)
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originalism
asserts the Constitution should be interpreted based on original meaning or intent
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viability
the ability of an argument/decision to stand up to legal scrutiny
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the moral community
the set of beings with full and equal moral rights- what makes someone a person
Warren argues fetuses don't have the same moral standing as persons so abortion is okay
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the development of synapses during pregnancy
the connection of neurons (happens between 21-24 weeks)
- neurodevelopment
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the majority opinion's argument for the view that there is no constitutional right to abortion
the ruling for Dobbs v. Jackson
- abortion is not an explicit right in the constitution
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the dissenting arguments in Dobbs
right to privacy & objection to originalism
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the basic pro-life argument
fetus's right to life overrides a woman's right to control her body
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the "no bright line" argument
no clear-cut or accepted point where the fetus turns into a human, can't decide officially when it's immoral to terminate
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violinist argument
wake up connected to a violinist and he needs your kidney, either disconnect and kill him or stay attached to him for 9 months. what's more important, right to life or right to use someone else's body?
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responsibility objection
voluntary actions create moral responsibility
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Warren's argument for the claim that a fetus is not a person
5 characteristics of personhood: consciousness, reasoning, self-motivated activity, communication, self-awareness
- fetuses do not have any of these
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Alien disintegration argument
same as the violinist but with an alien and she did not consent (question of bodily autonomy)
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the future like ours (FLO) account of the wrongness of killing
deprives the victim of future goods of conscious life, deprives them of a FLO,
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exceptions to Marquis' pro-life view and their justifications
life of the women matters, birth defect, rape
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implantation
when the embryo attaches to the lining of the uterus (14 days)
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worst of crimes argument
the worst crime is to kill & deprive someone of future value
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analogy with animals argument
suffering is wrong no matter what, if we think it's wrong for animals, isn't it the same for humans (fetuses)
228
appeal to cases argument
the loss of a future like ours in intuitively wrong, cases that we would/n't agree that it's okay to kill someone (unconsciousness, suicide, etc.)
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reductio arguments against the "personhood at conception" view: the fire in the fertility clinic, and America's Greatest Public Health Crisis
fire- embryo clinic on fire, can only save a few, but if they're all humans then who can we justify to save (shows absurdity treating all embryos as human)
crisis- what if we treated any form of birth control as killing since 'personhood starts at conception' (shows absurdity)
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major exceptions to freedom of speech: intrusion in the home, captive audience, true threats, incitement to imminent unlawful action, obscenity
intrusion: time and place (children?)
captive: positive manner restrictions
incitement: provoking others to engage in illegal acts
obscenity: prurient interests, patently offensive, no redeeming social value
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Texas v. Johnson
(1989) viewpoint discretion - flag burning is protected as a sign of symbolic free speech
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Snyder v. Phelps
(2010) Snyder sued Westboro Baptist Church for intentionally inflicting emotional distress since they held up hateful signs, the church won with the 1st amendment right
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Mill's arguments for the freedom of speech and expression
censorship is 'robbing the human race', silencing discussion is on assumption of the inability to be wrong
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Mill's Trident
the view people want to censor is true and/or false, no matter what it is, the exchange of ideas allows us to engage in a competition of ideas, truth has an advantage and discussion allows us to look for it
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Mounk's arguments against censorship
empowers the powerful, raises stakes of elections, removes ability to course correct
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social epistemology
how knowledge is produced or spread and how social structures shape that
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epistemic privilege
certain people have special or higher access to knowledge- how social positions and experience affect one's access to knowledge
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cancel culture
Rauch is a critic of CC - sees it as a threat to democracy and intellectual life
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Omar Wasow and David Shor
both did work on how important aspects of free speech are like protests, political discourse, etc., can promote social change and highlight strategies in political aspects
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"emotional safetyism"
'words that wound', cancel mobs on social media, de-platforming, calls for firing
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the "constitution of knowledge"
learn to tolerate being uncomfortable, freedom of expression can't happen w/o freedom to offend, never use intimidation or social coercion to suppress intellectual diversity
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civil society
equality of speakers, include everyone when speaking, should be a safe space for everyone to speak their mind
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Anderson on the purpose of universities
promotes democracy, teaches people to become intellectual thinkers and speakers, helps us with disputes
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the "liberal democratic model" of free speech
must be subjected to critical scrutiny, need to prevent discriminatory verbal harassment, prohibit personal attack that deter or discredit participation
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the campaign for marriage equality as paradigm of moral progress
represents a shift in social norms and moral understanding of each other, progression in how we think and debate
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Rauch's critique of emotional safetyism
threatens free speech and democracy, spiral of silence, people will lack genuine thought and debate with fear of being cancelled, opposing most important kind of diversity (thought)
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Anderson on respecting others as equal participants in inquiry
to have successful inquiry or conversation, we must respect each speaker and the see them as equal
