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Biology 1710- Final Exam > Final Exam review > Flashcards

Final Exam review Flashcards

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1
Q

Forms of an element with different numbers of neutrons, and thus different mass numbers

A

Isotopes

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2
Q

Particles with negative charge that determine the charge of an atom

A

Electron

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3
Q

four most common elements in living organisms

A

Carbon, Oxygen, Nitrogen, Hydrogen

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4
Q

The smallest unit of matter that retains all chemical properties of an element

A

Atom

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5
Q

Particles with positive charge that identify the element.

A

Protons

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5
Q

Proton, Neutron, Electron

A

Sub-atomic particles

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6
Q

Particles with neutral charge that contribute to an atom’s mass

A

Neutron

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7
Q

The outermost shell of an atom that determines its behavior

A

Valance Shell

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8
Q

Substances used at the beginning of a reaction

A

Reactants

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9
Q

Substances formed at the end of a reaction

A

products

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9
Q

The attractive force that links atoms together to form molecules

A

Chemical Bonds

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10
Q

Bonds where electrons are shared between atoms

A

Covalent Bonds

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11
Q

Bonds where atoms give up or gain electrons

A

Ionic Bond

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12
Q

The positive charge of hydrogen in a water molecule bonds/is attracted to the negative oxygen from a different water molecule

A

Hydrogen Bond

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13
Q

The liquid that dissolves other things

A

Solvent

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14
Q

What gets dissolved (sugar)

A

Solute

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15
Q

Water molecules at the liquid-gas interface stick together due to hydrogen bonding

A

Cohesion

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16
Q

The capacity of a substance to withstand being ruptured when placed under tension or stress

A

Surface Tension

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17
Q

Determined by the pH (percent hydrogen) of a solution indicated

A

Acidity or Alkalinity

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17
Q

Attraction between water molecules and other molecules

A

Adhesion

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18
Q

Has more hydrogens

A

Higher in Acidity

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19
Q

Key Component of Macromolecules

A

Carbon

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20
Q

Molecules consisting of carbon and hydrogen

A

Hydrocarbons

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21
Q

Molecules that have the same chemical formula but differ in placement/arrangement of atoms or types of bonds between atoms

A

Isomer

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21
Q

Isomers that have a different covalent arrangement of atoms

A

Structural Isomers

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22
Q

Isomers that have a different arrangement of atoms around a double bond

A

Geometric Isomers

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23
Q

Molecules that share chemical formula and bonds but differ in 3D placement of atoms; mirror images

A

Enantiomers

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24
Q

Groups of atoms within a molecule that confer consistent specific properties to these molecules

A

Functional Groups

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25
Q

functional group with an oxygen and a hydrogen atom

A

Hydroxyl

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26
Q

A functional group with a nitrogen atom bonded to two hydrogen atoms

A

Amino

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27
Q

A functional group with a phosphorus atom bonded to four oxygen atoms

A

Phosphate

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28
Q

Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Nucleic Acid

A

Major Classes of Macromolecules

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29
Q

Individual sub-units that macromolecules consist of

A

Monomers

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30
Q

Monomers that are linked together via covalent bonds

A

Polymers

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31
Q

The process where two molecules of glucose are linked to form the disaccharide maltose

A

Dehydration Synthesis

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32
Q

The process of breaking polymers down into individual monomers - also known as a dehydration reaction

A

Hydrolysis

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33
Q

Biological molecules that catalyze or ‘speed up’ reactions

A

Enzymes

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33
Q

Found in grains, fruits, and vegetables. Provide energy to the body in the form of glucose

A

Carbohydrates

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34
Q

Monosaccharides, Disaccharides, Polysaccharides

A

Three Main Carbohydrate Subtypes

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35
Q

Carbohydrates with 3-7 carbons

A

Monosaccharides

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36
Q

A monosaccharide with six carbons

A

Glucose

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37
Q

CH2O

A

Sugar Formula

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37
Q

Disaccharides are formed when two monomers are joined by a dehydration synthesis

A

Glycosidic Bond

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38
Q

Are created by Glycosidic

A

Linkages Maltose, Lactose, and Sucrose

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39
Q

Non-polar

A

Polarity of Lipids

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40
Q

Glycerol and Fatty Acids

A

Two main components of Fats

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41
Q

Formed by three fatty acids joining a glycerol backbone

A

Triglycerol

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41
Q

Molecules with two fatty acids and a modified phosphate group attached to a glycerol backbone

A

Phospholipids

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42
Q

Includes a head followed by a tail.

A

Phospholipid Bilayer

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43
Q

Molecules with four linked carbon rings

A

Steroids

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44
Q

steroid with four rings

A

Cholesterol

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45
Q

Catalysts in biochemical reactions

A

Enzyme

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46
Q

A diverse range of function

A

Protein

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47
Q

The monomers that make up proteins

A

Amino Acids

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48
Q

Amino acid monomers are linked via peptide bond formation (dehydration synthesis reaction

A

Peptide Bond

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49
Q

Based upon four levels of structure

A

Protein Shape

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50
Q

DNA and RNA

A

Two Types of Nucleic Acid

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51
Q

Primarily involved in protein synthesis

A

RNA

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52
Q

DNA and RNA Monomers

A

Nucleotides

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53
Q

Nucleotides’ three parts are:

A

Nitrogenous base, Pentose sugar, and One or more phosphate groups

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54
Q

Stronger than a light microscope

A

Electron microscope

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55
Q

four common components of cells

A

Cytoplasm, Plasma membrane, DNA, Ribosomes

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56
Q

Lack membrane-enclosed organelles

A

Prokaryotes

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57
Q

Lacks in prokaryotes

A

Nucleus

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58
Q

Location of DNA in prokaryotes

A

Nucleoid

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59
Q

Perforate the nuclear envelope membrane

A

Nuclear pores

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60
Q

Site for conversion of stored energy (ATP)

A

Mitochondria

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61
Q

Contain digestive enzymes

A

Lysosomes

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62
Q

Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated as independent prokaryotic organisms, are the ancestors of eukaryotic cells

A

Endosymbiosis hypothesis

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63
Q

Internal membranes and organelles that modify, package, and transport lipids and proteins

A

Endomembrane System

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64
Q

Modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids

A

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

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65
Q

Ribosomes attach to create proteins (rough ribos)

A

Rough Endoplasmic reticulum

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66
Q

Synthesizes carbohydrates, lipids, steroid hormones, and stores Ca++ (smooth like butter)

A

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

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67
Q

Transports lipids or proteins in vesicles to be stored, packaged, and tagged (amazon of cell)

A

Golgi Apparatus

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68
Q

Highways of cells and helps maintain the shape of cells

A

Cytoskeleton

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69
Q

Hairs on the cell

A

Cilia

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70
Q

Tails that move the cell (sperm lookin)

A

Flagella

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71
Q

plasmodesmata, tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions

A

types of intercellular junctions

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72
Q

Provide direct channels of communication between cells

A

Intercellular Junctions

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73
Q

Cytoplasm connecting channels that allow materials to move from cell to cell

A

Plasmodesmata

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74
Q

Watertight seals that prevent materials from leaking

A

Tight junctions

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75
Q

Short proteins in the plasma membrane that act as spot welds

A

Desmosomes

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76
Q

Protein-lined pores that allow water and small molecules to pass

A

Gap junctions

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77
Q

All chemical reactions of a cell or organism

A

Metabolism

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78
Q

Small molecules are assembled into large ones, energy is required

A

Anabolic

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79
Q

Large molecules are broken down into small ones, energy is released

A

Catabolic

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80
Q

Energy of objects in motion

A

Kinetic energy

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81
Q

Energy of objects that have the potential to move

A

Potential energy

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82
Q

Amount of energy available to do work

A

Gibb’s Free Energy (G)

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83
Q

the reaction will happen no matter if I put energy into it

A

negative G value

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84
Q

energy is needed for reaction

A

positive G value

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85
Q

Energy required for a reaction to proceed

A

Activation Energy

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86
Q

Protein catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering the required activation energy

A

Enzymes

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87
Q

Molecules that interact at the enzyme’s active site

A

Substrate

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88
Q

where the substrate and enzyme interact and react

A

active site

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89
Q

Mild shift in shape at the active site that optimizes reactions

A

Induced Fit

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90
Q

Modify the active site of the enzyme to reduce or prevent substrate binding

A

Allosteric inhibitors

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91
Q

Modify the active site of the enzyme to increase substrate affinity

A

Allosteric activators

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92
Q

Have a similar shape to the substrate, competing for the active site

A

Competitive inhibitors

93
Q

Bind to the enzyme at a different location, causing a slower reaction rate

A

Noncompetitive inhibitors

94
Q

End product of a pathway inhibits an upstream step

A

Feedback inhibition

95
Q

Defining outer border, managing what enters and exits the cell, receiving external signals, adhering to neighboring cells

A

Plasma Membrane Functions

96
Q

Main fabric of the plasma membrane composed of an amphiphilic lipid molecule

A

Phospholipids

97
Q

Proteins that go through the membrane

A

Integral Proteins

98
Q

Proteins on the side of the membrane, inside or out, never through

A

Peripheral Protein

99
Q

Affected by phospholipid type, temperature, and cholesterol

A

Fluidity

100
Q

Allows some molecules to pass through, but not others

A

Selective Permeability

101
Q

Diffusion of substances down their concentration gradient (from high concentration to low)

A

Passive transport

102
Q

Greater difference results in faster diffusion

A

Concentration gradients

103
Q

Moves substances down their concentration gradients through transmembrane proteins

A

Facilitated transport

104
Q

Diffusion of water across a membrane

A

Osmosis

105
Q

Describes how extracellular solutions can change the volume of a cell by affecting osmosis

A

Tonicity

106
Q

Extracellular fluid has lower osmolarity than the cytosol - water leaves the cell (shrivels)

A

Hypotonic

107
Q

Extracellular fluid has the same osmolarity as the cytosol - water does not move (normal)

A

Isotonic

108
Q

Extracellular fluid has higher osmolarity than the cytosol - water enters the cell(busts)

A

Hypertonic

109
Q

Transport of ions or molecules against their concentration or electromagnetic gradient

A

Active Transport

110
Q

Uses energy from ATP hydrolysis to move ions or molecules up their concentration gradient

A

Primary active transport

111
Q

Uses an electrochemical gradient to move a different substance against its concentration gradient

A

Secondary active transport

112
Q

Cytoplasm contains more negatively charged molecules than the extracellular fluid

A

Electrochemical Gradients

113
Q

Does not require energy or ATP

A

Passive transport

114
Q

Requires energy or ATP

A

Active transport

115
Q

Carries one molecule or ion

A

Uniporter

116
Q

Carries two different molecules or ions in the same direction

A

Symporter

117
Q

Carries two different molecules or ions in different directions

A

Antiporter

118
Q

Occurs when cells need to import or export large molecules/particles

A

Bulk Transport

119
Q

bulk transport requires..

A

energy

120
Q

Process of bringing substances into the cell

A

Endocytosis

121
Q

Cell membrane surrounds a particle and engulfs it (cellular eating)

A

Phagocytosis

122
Q

Cell membrane invaginates, surrounds a small volume of fluid, and pinches off (cellular drinking)

A

Pinocytosis

123
Q

Uptake of a specific substance targeted by binding to receptors on the membrane

A

Receptor mediated endocytosis

124
Q

Vesicles containing substances fuse with the plasma membrane and release contents to the exterior of the cell (exit)

A

Exocytosis

125
Q

When a molecule gains an H, (xH)

A

Reduction

126
Q

When a molecule loses an H, it has been oxidized (+)

A

Oxidation

127
Q

Carries 2e- and 1H+ more than NAD

A

NADH

128
Q

Result of a redox reaction

A

FADH and NADPH

129
Q

Process of adding a phosphate group to a molecule, producing energy

A

Phosphorylation

130
Q

Metabolic pathway that occurs in the cytosol, does not require oxygen

A

Glycolysis

131
Q

Occurs when there is no or not enough oxygen in the cell

A

Fermentation

132
Q

Occurs when there is oxygen in the cell

A

Cellular respiration

133
Q

Outcome of glycolysis

A

Pyruvate

134
Q

Result of the oxidation of pyruvate

A

Acetyl CoA

135
Q

Metabolic pathway that results in reduced molecules and oxaloacetate

A

Citric Acid Cycle

136
Q

Involves electrons, electron carriers, protons, and oxygen

A

Oxidative Phosphorylation

137
Q

Allow electrons to pass through

A

Electron carriers

138
Q

Final electron acceptor in Oxidative Phosphorylation

A

Oxygen

138
Q

Found in the intermembrane space, move down the electron gradient to create ATP

A

Protons

139
Q

Macromolecules that can be broken down

A

Lipids, Fats, and Proteins

140
Q

Converts light energy to chemical energy, occurs in the thylakoid membrane

A

Light reaction

141
Q

Location where light reaction occurs

A

Thylakoid membrane

142
Q

Occurs in the stroma of chloroplasts, fixes carbon

A

Calvin Cycle

143
Q

Main pigments of thylakoid membranes

A

Chlorophylls

144
Q
A
145
Q
A
146
Q

Type of carotenoid, main pigment of thylakoid membranes

A

Carotene

147
Q

Capture light for photosynthesis

A

chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b and carotenoids

148
Q

Require water and light

A

Photosystems

149
Q

Molecule necessary for carbon fixation in the Calvin Cycle

A

RuBP

150
Q

Process that requires carbon, occurs in the Calvin Cycle

A

Carbon fixation

151
Q

Goal of the Calvin Cycle, a three-carbon sugar

A

G3P

152
Q

Signals move by diffusion through extracellular matrix

A

Paracrine signaling

153
Q

Signals distant cells, produce a slower response with long-lasting effect

A

Endocrine signaling

154
Q

Signals cells that can also bind to the released ligand

A

Autocrine signaling

155
Q

Allows small signaling molecules to move between cells

A

Direct signaling across gap junctions

156
Q

Gated ion channels that open when the signaling molecule binds

A

Ion channel-linked receptors

157
Q

Trigger a cellular response when the signaling molecule binds

A

G-protein-linked receptors

158
Q

Receptor tyrosine kinase, triggers a cellular response

A

Enzyme-linked receptors

159
Q

Transmission of a signal through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm

A

Signal transduction

160
Q

Two receptors bind to each other to form a stable complex

A

Dimerization

161
Q

Chain of events that follow ligand binding to a receptor

A

Signaling pathway

162
Q

Signals from different receptors merge to activate the same response

A

Signal integration

163
Q

Enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a phosphate group (kind enough to lend Ph)

A

Kinase

164
Q

Series of steps where kinase is given phosphate, creating an activation cascade

A

Phosphorylation Cascade

165
Q

Small molecules that propagate a signal after binding of the signaling molecule to the receptor

A

Second Messengers

166
Q

Cell death, termination of cell signals

A

Apoptosis

167
Q

23 of them, Contain DNA, x and y

A

Chromosomes

168
Q

have 2 matched sets of chromosomes (diploid)

A

somatic cells

169
Q

have half the number of chromosomes (haploid)

A

gametes

170
Q

Structure of DNA

A

DNA double helix

171
Q

DNA wraps around histone protein

A

Histone protein

172
Q

Coiling of DNA and histone protein

A

Nucleosome

173
Q

Further condensation of nucleosome

A

Chromatin fiber

174
Q

Result of DNA synthesis

A

Duplicated chromosomes

175
Q

Includes mitosis and cytokinesis (can tell by looking)

A

Mitotic Phase

176
Q

synthesis phase, doubling of DNA

A

S DNA

177
Q

growth phases

A

G1 and G2

178
Q

Nuclear division

A

Mitosis

178
Q

Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope breaks down

A

Prophase

179
Q

Chromosomes line up along metaphase plate

A

Metaphase

180
Q

Chromatids become separated and pulled apart

A

anaphase

181
Q

Chromosomes reach opposite poles and begin to decondense

A

Telophase

182
Q

Completes cell division via physical separation of cytoplasmic components

A

Cytokinesis

183
Q

Control points in the cell cycle at G1, G2, and metaphase of mitosis

A

Regulated internal checkpoints

184
Q

Promote movement to the next step of the cell cycle

A

Positive regulators

185
Q

Stop the advancement of the cell cycle

A

Negative regulators

186
Q

Positive regulators of the cell cycle

A

Cyclins and Cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdks)

187
Q

Negative regulators of the cell cycle

A

Retinoblastoma protein (Rb), p53, p21

188
Q

Considered the father of genetics

A

Gregor Medel

189
Q

Result of true breeding

A

Parent generation (P)

190
Q

First filial generation from a cross between siblings (brother and sister)

A

F1 hybrid

191
Q

Second filial generation produced by crossing 2 F1 individuals

A

F2

192
Q

Succeeding generation after F2 (stabalized)

A

F3, F4, and F5

193
Q

Characteristic version of a trait that is observable (blue eyes)

A

Phenotype

194
Q

Specific versions of a gene

A

Alleles

195
Q

Alleles that mask others, often designated with capital letters

A

Dominant

196
Q

Specific combination of alleles that determines the phenotype

A

Genotype

196
Q

Alleles that are masked by others, often designated with lowercase letters

A

Recessive

197
Q

Individual with both alleles for the same trait being the same (PP - are true breeding)

A

Homozygote

198
Q

Individual with alleles for the same trait being different (Pp - are non-true breeding)

A

Heterozygote

199
Q

place of interest on a chromosome, usually a gene

A

locus

200
Q

the most common allele in a population (normal allele)

A

wildtype allele

201
Q

a rare allele in a population. reasoned to be the most recently formed allele by mutation (non-normal allele)

A

mutant allele

202
Q

can be used to make genetic inferences

A

pedigree

203
Q

Situation in which one allele is not completely dominant over another allele (shared dominance, mixed phenotypes)

A

incomplete dominance

204
Q

using a virus as a syringe to do experiements

A

bacteriophages

205
Q

was a part of the team that discovered the structure of the DNA helix (along w/ Watson and Crick)

A

Rosalind Franklin

206
Q

three different parts:
sugar, nitrogenous base, and phosphate group

A

Each nucleiotide is made up of-

207
Q

carbon one, carbon three, carbon five

A

the three important carbons

208
Q

has the nitrogenous base

A

carbon one

209
Q

hydroxl group, where reaction occurs with new nucleiotides

A

carbon three

210
Q

ALWAYS attatches the the phosphate group

A

carbon five

211
Q

3’ end

A

which end do nucleotides attatch to

211
Q

5’ to 3’

A

direction of DNA

212
Q

is formed when helicase separates the DNA strand at the orign of replication

A

replication fork

213
Q

the enzyme the unzips (separetes top and bottom strands) DNA

A

helicase

214
Q

Synthesizes RNA primers needed to start replication

A

primase

214
Q

prevents the overwidening of the DNA strands (removes tension)

A

tomoisomerase

215
Q

bind to the single strand of DNA tp prevent the helix from refomring (keeps the strantds open)

A

Single-strand binding proteins

216
Q

synthesizes new DNA on the leading strand

A

DNA polymerase iii

217
Q

bacckfilled with RNA primer

A

the lagging strand gets-

218
Q

is added to the ends of DNA strands to protect and maintain DNA

A

Telomerase enzyme

218
Q

seals the gaps between DNA (okazaki fragmants)

A

DNA ligase

218
Q

replaces RNA primer with DNA

A

DNA polymerase i

219
Q

has no effect on the protein sequence

A

silent mutations

220
Q

result in an amino acid substitution

A

missense mutation

221
Q

substitues a stop codon for an amino acid (confusing)

A

nonsene mutation

222
Q

may result in a whole shift in the reading frame or insertion of a stop codon

A

frameshift mutations

223
Q

DNA is first transcribed into mRNA, then mRNA is translated into proteins

A

central dogma

224
Q

promoter (piece of upstream DNA) indicates where the RNA polymerase should bind to begin process

A

transcription initiation

225
Q

RNA polymerase adds complimentary nucleotides (ACUG) to make mRNA

A

transcription elongation

226
Q

include anticodons which attach to corresponding codons

A

tRNA (transfer RNA)

226
Q

mRNA attaches to the smaller subunit of a ribosome

A

translation initiation

227
Q

tRNA move into the appropriate amino acid in groups of three, to code into the correct protein, and the chain of proteins grows

A

translation elongation

228
Q

are within the ribosome structure, mRNA moves through the order of A-P-E

A

E-P-A sites

229
Q

mRNA enters and confirms the match

A

A-site

230
Q

for making polypeptides, the ribosome attaches to the existing chain

A

P-site

231
Q

where the codon ejects and binds to a specific structure

A

E-site

232
Q

the ribosome reaches a STOP codon, the ribisome breaks and releases the mRNA

A

translation termination

Biology 1710- Final Exam (1 decks)

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