Final Exam Review Flashcards
what is the prefrontal cortex responsible for regarding movement?
movement intention
what are the motor planning regions?
Supplementary motor area, primary motor cortex, basal ganglia, and cerebellum
what is the primary motor cortex responsible for?
movement initiation
what pathway does primary motor cortex follow?
corticospinal tract to interneurons
what neurons are responsible for movement execution?
alpha motor neurons
what types of motor loops are there?
feed-forward and feedback
what is sensorimotor integration?
converging of sensory signals with motor commands
what are the two functions of sensorimotor integration?
use of motor commands to enhance sensory info; use of sensory info to influence movement
what is perception-action coupling?
using perception of environment to perform the task in a coordinated fashion.
what is an activity or task that requires voluntary control of the movement of the joints and body segments to achieve a goal?
motor skill
what is the general capacity of an individual that is related to performance of the task; a general trait or attribute of a person?
ability
what are specific patterns of motions among joints and body segments?
movements
what is the neuromotor processes?
mechanisms within the central and peripheral nervous systems and muscular systems that underlie the control of movements and skills
what is the order in which motor control and learning are prioritized relating to movements, actions, and neuromotor processes?
- actions
- movements
- neuromotor processes
what are the one-dimensional systems of motor skill classifications?
gross motor skill and fine motor skill
continuous motor skill and discrete motor skill
open motor skill and closed motor skill
what are considerations in gentile’s 2-dimension taxonomy?
the environmental context and the function of the action
what is considered in the environmental context of gentile’s 2 dimension taxonomy?
regulatory conditions: is it open vs closed
intertrial variability
what is considered for the function of the action in gentile’s 2-dimension taxonomy?
movements that require a stable body vs mobile body
object manipulation vs no manipulation
what are the four combinations regarding stationary regulatory conditions, no intertrial variability, body stability (object/no object), and body transport (object/ no object)?
body stability-no object: standing alone
body stability- with object: standing still brushing teeth
body transport- no object: running, climbing stairs
body transport- with object: walking with book
what are the four regulatory conditions regarding stationary conditions and intertrial variability, body stability (object/no object), and body transport (object/no object)?
body stability-no object: standing on different surfaces
body stability-object: putting golf balls from different locations
body transport- no object: agility drills via obstacle course
body transport- object: walking on different surfaces carrying bags
what are the four regulatory conditions for in-motion and no intertrial variability, body stability (object/no object) and body transport (object/no object)?
in motion- body stability-no object: walking on treadmill @ constant speed
“-body stability-object: walking on treadmill using phone
“- body transport: walking on escalator
“-body transport- object- walking on escalator holding up
what is an example of in-motion regulatory conditions and intertrial variability with body stability and no object?
walking on treadmills at varying speeds; cheerleader on a swaying teammate
what is an example of in-motion regulatory conditions and intertrial variability with body stability and an object?
walking on a treadmill with different speeds reading; catching softballs thrown by teammate
what is an example of in-motion regulatory conditions and intertrial variability with body transport and no object?
walking in a crowded mall; avoiding being caught in a game of tag
what is an example of in-motion regulatory conditions and intertrial variability with body transport and an object?
walking in crowded space carrying a bag; practicing soccer with a ball and opponents
if two people have the same amount of practice, level and amount of instruction, and motivation to perform the skill, then motor abilities will influence their level of performance success that each person can/will achieve. What is this known as?
individual-differences variable
what is the general motor ability hypothesis?
many motor abilities are highly related and can be grouped as a singular, global motor ability
what is the specificity hypothesis?
many motor abilities are relatively independent in an individual
what are the categories of motor abilities?
physical proficiency, psychomotor, psychological
what is physical proficiency and what are examples?
physiological and anatomical characteristics: strength, VO2 max, flexibility, speed, HR, height, age.
what are psychomotor abilities?
perception-action coupling speed, cognitive processing and decision making: reaction time, accuracy/precision, eye-hand coordination
what are psychological abilities? examples?
behavioural and psychological characteristics: motivation, coping, aggression, attentional control, emotional control
why would you evaluate motor abilities?
determine causes of performance deficiencies, assess the effectiveness of an intervention program (physical rehab).
what describes and explains how the nervous system produces coordinated movement to successfully perform a variety of motor skills in a variety of environments?
motor control theory?
what is motor redundancy?
when multiple movement solutions are possible
what is the degrees of freedom problem?
too many choices to meet task demands so one solution must be chosen
what are examples of closed loop theories?
reflex model and central pattern generators and heterarchical models
what model is the hierarchical model?
open loop
what model provides basic understanding of designed circuits for basic movement patterns?
reflex models & central pattern generators
what model is complex and includes higher brain centers modifying signals?
heterarchical models
explain heterarchical models
based on coordinative structures: groups of muscles (and joints) constrained to act as functional units by the nervous system to act cooperatively to produce an action.
* also considered muscle synergies
explain hierarchical models (open loops), what is the most notable theory?
top-down control: Schmidt’s Schema theory
explain Schmidt’s Schema Theory
suggests the existence of generalized motor programs:
GMPs are general representation of various motor actions (or class of actions).
what are invariant features?
characteristics that do not vary across performances of a skill within class of actions
what are parameters?
movement-related features of the performances of an action that can be varied from one performance to another
What are shortcomings of GMPs (general motor programs)?
brain cannot store gmps for so many different movements; doesn’t answer how movements are created; has a need for the executive controller (brain) to make never-ending rapid fire decisions
what are four points from motor control theories?
- nervous system is concerned with movemnt outcomes rather than specific action;
- nervous system must consider psychological, physiological, and biomechanical properties of the body, the movement goals, and the environmental context;
- there are hard-wired synergist movmenets which form the building blocks for more complex movements;
- there is constant variability in environment, feedback, motor commands
what 3 parts make up the systems model (dynamic systems)?
task, individual, environment
what is an attractor?
systems ability to maintain stable and patterned movements based on the circumstances
what are some characteristics of an attractor?
the preferred behavioural state, or energy effificent state
what are parameters that may be needed to transition to a new stable state?
order parameters and control parameters
what is an order parameter?
the functionally specific variables that define the overall behaviour of the system that enable a coordinated pattern of movements to be distinguished from other patterns
what is a control parameter?
a variable that, when increased or decreased, will influence the stability and character of the order parameter.
what is the job of the CNS?
to process information
what are the two theories of how the brain manages information?
- serial processing
- multiple resources theory
what are the 2 resources that are prominent in theories?
- attention
- memory
what is the serial process therory?
that only most relevant information is passed through, one at a time; resulting in info getting “bottlenecked”, causing a delay
what is it called when information processing causes a delay?
psychological refractory period
what is the multiple resource theory?
that there are a variety of processing resources that can create more flexible capabilities; attention resources provide feedback to perception, decision and response selection, response execution, while those provide feedback about stimuli.
what is attention?
the mental process of concentrating on specific things; an exclusive allocation of processing resources
what are the two types of attention?
conscious (explicit) or subconscious (implicit)
what do attention theories propose?
that we can simultaneously perform tasks, as long as the total capacity limits are not exceeded
what are the 3 attention theories?
central resource pool capacity, kahneman’s attention theory, and multiple resource theory of attention
what does the central resource capacity theory propose?
that there is one central source of attentional resources from which all activities requiring attention compete
what does kahneman’s attention theory propose?
that the central pool is flexible, and the amount of attentional resource is determined by:
1. the arousal level
2. the attentional demands of the task
3. distraction and intention
what is arousal?
general state of excitability of a person, involving physiological, emotional, and cognitive systems
what does arousal level of kahneman’s attention theory propose?
need an optimal level of arousal for attention to be maintained
how does the attentional demands of the task relate to Kahneman’s attention theory?
determines if sufficient attention resources available for the task
what occurs during the distraction and intention portion of kahneman’s theory?
to ensure completion of one task, allocation of attention will be based on enduring characteristics and involuntary attention from distractions to complete the intended task
what is the multiple resources theory?
that in order to allocate attention, there are input & output modalities considered, the stages of information processing is input, and there are codes of processing information followed
what is selective attention?
attention that is placed on the most important thing relevant to completing a task while ignoring other stimuli
what is attentional focus?
directing of attention to specific aspects of our performance or performance environment
what is used to classify direction of attention (attentional focus)?
Nideffer’s 2 dimensional scale
what is nideffer’s two dimensional scale based on?
width of focus- being broad or narrow
direction of focus- external or internal
what is an example of a external and broad focus?
awareness: court sense, environmental awareness
what is an example of external and narrow focus?
External focus: movement goal/outcome
environmental obstacles
what is an example of internal narrow focus?
internal focus: decision making
systemic problem solving
mental imagery
physiological processes
what is an example of internal broad focus?
concepts and strategies: analysis and planning
“big picture” goals and strategies
physiological body scanning
are motor skills best learned and performed when attention is based internally or externally?
externally
what is attention switching?
also known as momentary intention; switching between types of attentional focus
what would you focus on when using attention as an instructional technique?
movement initiation
attention on specific movement components
focusing on external cues
what is the difference between intention and effort?
intention provides a goal or plan of action
effort is motivation and how much time and energy is devoted to the task
what is postural control?
positioning of our whole body, body segments, and limbs relative to on another and the environment
what is the primary outcome focus of postural control?
stability
what is stability?
the ability to achieve a position that is resistant to disturbance OR one that returns to normal state after disruption
what are the 3 components of stability?
whole body which equals balance,
segmental stability
joint stability
what is balance?
physical equilibrium: the ability to maintain equilibrium by controlling one’s center of mass or center of gravity over their base of support
what are the types of balance?
static and dynamic
what are the 3 strategies that we use to maintain balance?
ankle, hip and stepping
what are some factors that effect the employment of different strategies?
speed, intensity, and magnitude of displacing force
variations in support surface
preparedness for the displacing force
familiarity of the activity
what systems are involved with balance? what might the goals be regarding balance?
sensory system, neuromuscular system, CNS
provide stability against perturbations; minimize muscle activity
what are the components of the sensory system?
vestibular, visual, somatosensory(proprioception)
what is sensory organization?
the CNS’s ability to filter input for inaccurate information
Why is the sensory system important for clinical rehabilitation?
eliminating one of the 3 systems forces the 2 remaining to be more efficient and effective
what is anticipatory control?
prepares the body in advance for activation of muscles based on situational demands
what is reactive control?
compensatory adjustments in response to disturbances
what are anticipatory and reactive controls influences by?
learned behaviours and cognitive demands
what are some examples of sensory input?
vestibular- equilibrium, spatial awareness, rotation, linear movement
visual- sight
proprioceptive- touch
how does the brain integrate the sensory input?
cerebellum coordinates and regulates posture, movement, and balance
cerebral cortex contributes to higher level of thinking and memory
the brainstem integrates and sorts sensory information
what are examples of motor output?
vestibulo-ocular reflex,
motor impulses to control eye movements
motor impulses to make postural adjustments
what is the path of posture and balance?
sensory input - integration of input - motor output- balance
what are examples of maladaptive postural control?
chronic behavioural states related to physiological changes, overt movement actions, subtle changes in tone and postural control.
sustained workplace injury- seated work/repetitive movements
obesity and low fitness
injuries to one or more sensory system(s)
aging/degeneration
why would someone want to do posture and balance training?
it is integral to any fitness program targeting functional health, including activities of daily living and fall prevention
improves sway and balance in healthy and unhealthy persons
what considerations should be made for balance and postural control conditioning programs?
they need to be multifaceted, sport-specific, and emphasize predictive control with outcomes focusing on joint stability
following a joint injury, the stability of the joint may be compromised due to:
reduced mechanical stability
changes in proprioceptive information
nociception (pain)
what is joint stability an outcome of?
static and dynamic systems; proactive and reactive postural controls
when creating joint stability training programs, what are considerations?
multifaceted, include running, agility, ST, core/trunk control, emphasize movement quality and posteral control over fitness development, include sport specific perception-action coupling situations, target individual specific needs
what is coordination?
the patterning of body and limb motions relative to the patterning of environmental objects and events.
what are coordinative structures?
functionally specific pattern of muscles and joints that can be developed/learned or may exist naturally
what is eye-hand coordination?
ability to perform skills requiring vision and the precise use of hands
what is bimanual coordination?
simultaneous performance using both arms: can be symmetric bimanual coordination (rowing)
asymmetric bimanual coordination (2 limbs doing different things)
what should be considered during coordination training?
gait: normal walking pattern, running, vision + locomotion, avoiding contact with objects
catching a moving object
striking a moving object: size of object, weight of object, tool use
what are progressions of exercises based on?
rehab environment, support surface, and task difficulty
what are types of rehab environments?
controlled/closed: free of distractions
uncontrolled/ open: unpredictable and allow for outside distractions
what types of support surfaces are considered for training programs?
stable vs unstable: foam and terrain;
can occur with the patient in sitting, kneeling, standing, or quadruped
what is meant by task difficulty ?
stand, planes of movement, simple movement or combined movements, visual systems, functional movements or sport specific
what activity requires the highest levels of motor control?
walking
what regions of the nervous system are required?
all!
cerebral cortex, basal ganglia, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord & stepping pattern generators, sensory info, attention
what do interneurons do?
adjust the output of motor neurons via inhibitory circuits, reflexes and pattern-generating circuits
what are central pattern generators?
functional circuits producing stereotyped movements; they are adaptable, and produce rhythmic output, require a command to be initiated, and are located in spinal cord and brainstem
what are stepping pattern generators?
CPG specific for locomotion/gait; Lower motor neurons eliciit pattern of flection and extension at hips and knees for stepping motion; each limb has its own SPG; they are coordinated by anterior commissure of spinal cord
what influences stepping pattern generators?
somatosensory information leading to adaptation to the task, environment, and gait cycle phase.
what are requirements for succesful walking?
support of body mass by lower extremity, locomotor rhythm, dynamic balance posture and postural control, propulsion in the intended direction, and the ability to adapt
what are the phases of gait?
stance and swing
what makes up the stance phase of gait?
initial contact, loading response, midstance, terminal, and pre swing
what parameters make up a gait?
base of support
velocity
cadence
step length
stride length
what are the two styles of gait parameters?
temporal and distance
where are rhythmic characteristics for gait?
between arms and legs and between pelvis and thorax
what are the stages you would start with preparatory exercises?
large base of support, low center of mass
progress from mobility, to stability, to dynamic stability, to skill
what are the six stages of preparatory programs?
bridging/laying on ground - quadruped - sitting - kneeling/half kneeling - modified plantigrade - standing with sit to stand somewhere in between if necessary
what should you observe during someone’s gait?
distance between feet, dorsiflexion during heel strike and late stance, steppage gait, lower limb stiffness, difficulty initiating or stopping, speed, symmetry
what are possible causes of ataxic gait: wide-based gait
cerebellar or proprioceptive lesions
what are possible causes of lack of dorsiflexion at heel strike?
dorsiflexor weakness or excessive stiffness of plantar flexor muscles
what are possible causes of lack of dorsiflexion during late stance?
excessive stiffness of plantar flexor muscles
possible causes of steppage gait?
lack of somatosensation in lower limb or need to clear the toes from the floor if dorsiflexors are weak
possible cause of lower limb stiffness?
tendon reflex hyperreflexia or motor tract lesion
difficulty initiating or stopping walking?
basal ganglia disorder
possible cause of lack of symmetry?
motor tract lesion
describe performance
an observable behaviour; act of executing a skill at a specific time in a specific situation
desrcribe learning
relatively permanent change in one’s capability to perform as a result of practice
what are performance characteristics of skill learning?
- improvement
- consistency
- stability- despite internal or external perturbations that may disrupt performance
- persistance
- adaptability
- reduction in attention demand
what are the types of performance curves when measuring learning?
linear curve
negative accelerated curve
positive accelerated curve
S-curve
what are some reasons for performance based plateus?
learner based factors: psychological- poor motivation, physiological/psychophysiological - injury/fatigue
instructor based factors: inappropriate criterion measures/communication problems, limitations imposed by performance measures
task based factors: learners must often discard familiar, break old habits, adopt new techniques
what are the stages of learning in the Fitts and Posner’s 3-stage model? what does it emphasize in regard to learning?
cognitive stage- associative stage- autonomous stage; description of performance from stage to stage.
what occurs during the cognitive stage?
how to grip ball, basic overarm action, poor trunk/arm sequencing, inconsistent ball release, poor and highly variable velocity/accuracy, highly variable trunk/limb biomechanics and muscle activation, effort put into repeated trials with a growing understanding of cause and effect
what occurs during the associative stage?
effective trunk, arm, and leg sequencing, including wind up motion, improved shoulder/elbow biomechanics, increased power from leg/trunk during weight shifting/rotation, consistent biomechanics, velocity/accuracy
what occurs during the autonomous stage?
highly effective sequencing/force transfer, highly patterned shoulder/elbow biomechanics, very consistent biomechanics, velocity and accuracy coupled together, ability to throw in different contexts with effectiveness
what are the stages of Gentile’s 2 stage model? what does it focus on regarding learning?
initial stages of learning - later stages of learning. focuses on the learning process and instruction during the stages
what happens during the initial stages of learning?
acquired movment coordination pattern, discriminate between regulatory and non-regulatory conditions
what happens during the later stages of learning?
develop adaptability, increase consistency, perform with economy of effort
based on gentile’s 2-stage model, what kind of skills require fixation of the movement pattern?
closed skills: learner develops capability to perform pattern with little conscious effort and minimal energy
based on gentile’s 2-stage model, what kind of skills require diversification of movement coordination pattern?
open skills: learner must adapt to changing conditions, learner must monitor environment to modify movement accordingly
