Final Exam Questions Flashcards
1
Q
List the levels of organization from smallest to largest.
A
Atoms> Molecules> Smooth muscle cell> Tissue level> organ level> organ system level> organismal level
2
Q
Define homeostasis.
A
Describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively stable internal conditions despite external changes
3
Q
Define negative feedback mechanism and give an example
A
The response to the stimulus is to SHUT OFF the original stimulus or reduce its intensity. When the body is cold, the body heats itself up. When it reaches correct temperature, heating process shuts off.
4
Q
Define “medial”
A
Towards the midline
5
Q
Define “lateral”
A
Away from the midline of the body
6
Q
Define “proximal”
A
Towards the origin of the limb
7
Q
Define “distal”
A
away from the origin of the limb
8
Q
List four properties that make water vital.
A
a) High heat capacity. Absorbs and releases large amounts of heat before temperature drops. Keeps us warm.
b) Polarity/solvent properties. Excellent solvent.
c) Chemical reactivity. Important reactant in digesting food or break down molecules.
d) cushioning. Forms a cusion around brain and spine.
9
Q
What is an acid? What is a base?
A
Substance that can release hydrogen ions (H+) in detectable amounts. Proton donors. Base:proton acceptors. Releases hydroxyl ion OH-
10
Q
What is the normal pH of blood?
A
pH 7.4
11
Q
What is a buffer?
A
Systems of 1 or 2 molecules that act to prevent dramatic changes in hydrogen ion (H+). They are first line of defense in resisting pH changes.
12
Q
Know the difference between a carbohydrate, lipid, and protein.
A
Carb: sugar-based
Lipid: fat-based
Protein: amino-acid based.
13
Q
What is the primary use of glucose in the human body?
A
Universal cellular fuel
14
Q
What is DNA? What does it contain?
A
Genetic material found within cell nucleus. Provides instructions for building every protein in the body.
15
Q
What is ATP and why is it important?
A
Provides a form of chemical energy that all body cells can use.
16
Q
Describe the characteristics of a plasma (cell) membrane. What is its function?
A
Contains the cell contents and separates them from the surrounding environment.
17
Q
What is the function of the cell nucleus?
A
The control center, headquarter of a cell. Contains the genes with DNA.
18
Q
State the function of each of the following organelles: Mitochondria
A
Supply most of the ATP. “Powerhouse” of a cell
19
Q
State the function of each of the following organelles: Ribosomes
A
The actual sites of protein synthesis in the cell.
20
Q
State the function of each of the following organelles: Lyosomes
A
Membranouse “bags” containing powerful digestive enzymes
21
Q
State the function of each of the following organelles: Endoplasmic Reticulum
A
ER. Accounts for about half of a cell’s membrane. . It serves as a minicirculatory system for the cell because it provides a network of channels for carrying substances.
22
Q
What is the function of cilia
A
cellular extensions that move substances along the cell surface. Propells other things. Ex: the ciliated cells of the respiratory system lining move mucus up and away from the lungs.
23
Q
What is the function of flagella?
A
Propels the cell itself. Sperm’s tail
24
Q
What is meant by selective permeability
A
A barrier allows some substances to pass thru it while excluding others.
25
Define: Diffusion
process by which molecules move away from a concentrated area to a less concentrated area.
26
Define: Osmosis
Diffusion of water through a permeable membrane.
27
Define: Filtration
process by which water and solutes are forced thru a membrane
28
Define: Active Transport
uses protein carriers to be transported across the membrane
29
Define: Phagocytosis
scavenger cells that eat bacteria and other foreign debris
30
What's the difference between meiosis and mitosis?
Mitosis: division of the nucleus occurs first. Makes an identical of the first cell.
Meiosis: for gametes (sex cells) only. Mixes between 2 sets of DNA from parents.
31
How are epithelial cells classified?
Lining, covering, and glandular tissue of the body. It protects, absorbs, filters, and secretes. They are classified by identifying the relative number of cell layers and then its’ shape of the cell.
32
How is the function of simple epithelial cells different from stratified epithelial cells?
Simple: absorbs, secretes, and filters. Thin, so its not used for protection.
Stratified: Consists of 2+ layers. Primarily to protect.
33
What is transitional epithelium?
Lines only a few organs: bladder, ureters, and part of the urethra. They are “strectchy.”
34
What is the difference between an endocrine and exocrine gland?
Endocrine: lose their connection to the surface duct, so they are ductless. Their secretions go directly into the blood.
Exocrine: retain their ducts. Their secretions empty thru to the epithelial surface.
35
What are the 5 connective tissues?
* Bone
* Cartilage
* Tendons and ligaments
* Adipose tissue
* Blood
36
Describe the unique characteristics of smooth muscle cells:
or VISCERAL muscle. Found in the walls of hollow organs like the stomach, uterus, and blood vessels.
37
Describe the unique characteristic of the skeletal muscle:
can be controlled voluntarily
38
Define the characteristics of the cardiac muscle
Found only in the heart
39
What is another name for the skin?
Cutaneous membrane
40
Where would you find a mucus membrane?
Lines all body cavities that open to the exterior such as organs of respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive tracts.
41
Where would you find the following serous membrane: Peritoneum
Abdominal cavity
42
Where would you find the following serous membrane: Pleura
Lungs
43
Where would you find the following serous membrane: Pericardium
Heart
44
Name the layers of the skin from the outermost to the innermost (include the hypodermis).
1) Epidermis
2) Dermis (Papillary layer, and then reticular layer)
3) Hypodermis
45
What is keratin? What is its' function?
Tough protein. Hardened to help prevent water loss from the body surface. Keeps skin elastic.
46
What is melanin? What is its' function?
Melanin is a pigment that ranges from yellow to brown to black. Shields DNA from damaging effets of UV.
47
Give an example of compact bone.
Tough bone on the outside that gives bones their rough exterior. (humerus)
48
Give an example of a Long Bone:
Has a shaft with heads at both ends. All bones of limbs (except knee, ankle, wrist.. are long bones)
49
Give an example of a flat bone:
thin, flattened. Skull, ribs, sternum
50
Give an example of an irregular bone:
The vertabrae
51
Give an example of a spongy bone
Soft part inside the bone
52
Give an example of a short bone
wrist, and ankles
53
What is the significance of the epiphyseal plate?
They cause the lengthwise growth of long bones
54
Explain what is found in the yellow bone marrow and the red bone marrow.
Yellow—fat
| Red—makes red blood cells
55
Define: "osteocyte"
mature bone cells
56
Define: Osteoblast
bone-forming cells
57
Define: Osteoclast
Giant bone-destroying cells in bones
58
Define: Ossification
the overall process of bone formation
59
What two elements are needed for bone growth and remodeling?
Calcium and Vitamin D
60
How many vertebrae are there?
24
61
7. What is the purpose of intervertebral disk?
Cushion the vertebrae and absorb shocks
62
Another name for "joint"?
Articulation
63
What is the function of synovial fluid?
Lubricate joints
64
Compare and contrast smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, and cardiac muscle
Smooth—walls of organs and blood vessels; nonstriated
Skeletal—muscles that u can control; striated
Cardiac—heart; striated
65
What is a "sarcolemma"?
Plasma membrane that surrounds skeletal muscle cell
66
What is a motor unit?
A motor neron (nerve cell) may stimulate a few muscle cells. One neuron and all skeletal muscle cells it stimulates is called a motor unit.
67
What is the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular junction?
acetylcholine, or ACh
68
What is an origin? An insertion?
Origin: point that is attached to the bone
Insertion: attached to the movable bone. The insertion moves towards the origin. Some muscles have interchangeable origin/insertion
69
Describe Flexion
decreases the angle of the joint and brings 2 bones close together. Bending the knee/elbow or bending forward at the hip
70
Describe Extension
opposite of flexion. Increases the angle. Such as straightening the knee or elbow
71
Describe Abduction
moving a limb away from the midline or median plane. Stretching your arm out to the side. Also applies to fingers/toes when they are moved apart.
72
Describe Adduction
Opposite of Abduction. Bring arm closer to body.
73
Describe Rotation
movement of a bone around it’s longitudinal axis. Usually ball-n-socket joint. Shaking your head “no.”
74
Describe Circumduction
proximal end is stationary, and distal end moves in a circle. Stretch out arm and make a small circle at 45degrees
75
Describe Inversion and Eversion
Inversion: Turn foot medially.
Eversion: turn foot laterally.
76
Describe "Supination" and "Pronation"
Supination: when the forearm rotates laterally so that the palm faces anteriorly. Lift a cup of soup up to your mouth on your palm, you are “soup”-inating!
Pronation: Opposite of supination
77
Describe Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion
Dorsiflexion: Toe points towards knee
| Plantar flexion: Toe points towards ground
78
What is a Prime Mover? And what is an Antagonist?
Prime mover—The muscle that has the major responsibility for cuasing a particular movement is the prime mover.
Antagonists—the muscle that oppose or reverses a movement
Example: the biceps of the arm (prime mover of elbow flexion) is antagonized by the triceps (a prime mover of elbow extension)
79
What does the CNS stand for? And what does it consist of?
Central Nervous System. Brain and spinal cord
80
What does the (PNS) consist of?
peripheral nervous system. Cranial and spinal nerves
81
3. What is an afferent neuron? An efferent neuron? What is another name for these?
Afferent (Sensory): nerves that send impulses to CNS
| Efferent (Motor): From CNS to muscles and glands
82
What is myelin, and what is its function?
Fatty insulating coverings, protects and insulates the nerve fibers and increases transmission rate of nerve impulse
83
What's the difference between white matter and gray matter? Which is myelinated?
White: myelinated
Grey: unmyelinated
84
What happens to the cell membrane during depolarization and repolarization?
Depolarization: Sodium (NA+) rushes in. Outside is less positive
Repolarization: Sodium is back out of the nerve
85
What happens at the synapse?
Neurotransmitter chemical crosses the synapse to transmit the signal from one neuron to the next
86
Identify the 4 lobes of the brain:
Frontal, temporal, parietal, Occiptal
87
What is the Broca's area?
Involved in our ability to speak. Motor speech
88
Function of the Thalamus
Station for sensory impulses
89
Function of the Hypothalamus
Regulates body temp, water balance, and metabolism
90
Function of the Limbic System
Emotional visceral brain. Drives emotions; thirst, appetite, sex, pain, pleasure
91
Function of the Medulla Oblongata
Control heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, vomiting and others.
92
Function of the Cerebellum
Provides the precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and controls our balance and equilibrium
93
List 3 layers of the meninges from outermost to the innermost
a) dura mater
b) periosteal layer
c) meningeal layer
94
What is the primary function of the parasympathetic nervous system?
“rest and digest” system. (Remember the D's: ) Digestion, Defecation, and Diuresis (urination)
95
What is the primary function of the sympathetic nervous system?
Remember the (E's): Exercise, Excitement, Emergency, and Embarrassment
96
What are the 12 cranial nerves and what are their major functions?
I. Olfactory—Carries impulses for the sense of smell
II. Optic—impulses for vision
III. Oculomotor—controls muscles that move the eye. Also controls pupil size and eyelid
IV. Trochlear—Supplies motor fibers for one external eye muscle (superior oblique)
V. Trigeminal—sensory impulses from the skin of the face and the mucosa of nose/mouth; also motor fibers that activate chewing muscles.
VI. Abducens—supplies motor fibers to lateral rectus muscle, which rolls the eye laterally
VII. Facial—activates muscles of facial expression and salivary glands; sensory from taste buds of tongue
VIII. Vestibulocochlear—sense of balance, sense of hearing.
IX. Glossopharynggeal—motor fibers to the pharynx that promote swallowing and saliva production. Sensory from taste budsfrom posterior tongue
X. Vagus—sensory and motor for pharynx, larynx, abdominal; most are paraymphatetic: digestive and heart activity
XI. Accessory—motor fibers that activate neck/shoulder muscles to rotate head and shrug
XII. Hypoglossal—controls tongue movement
97
What is the function of the Lacrimal Glands?
Release tears onto the surface of the eyeball thru small ducts
98
What is the function of the Cornea?
Window of the sclera where light enters the eye
99
What is the function of the Retina?
Light is focused onto the retina by the lens. This is where all the cones are located
100
What is the function of the Lens?
Divides the eye into 2 segments/chambres. Focuses light onto the retina
101
What is the function of the Pupil?
Pigmented Iris. Like the diaphragm of a camera; regulates amount of light entering
102
What is meant by refraction?
When light passes thru another substance that has a different density, the light rays are bent.
103
What is meant by "accommodation"?
The ability to focus on close objects (>20ft)
104
What is the function of the external auditory canal?
Secrete earwax which provides sticky trap for foreign bodies and repels insects
105
What is the function of the tympanic membrane
"Eardrum" causes vibration
106
What is the function of the Organ of Corti
contains hearing receptors or hair cells
107
What is the function of the Vestibular apparatus?
The equilibrium receptors of the inner ear
108
What is an olfactory receptor (cell)?
Neurons equipped with olfactory hairs, long cilia that are layered in mucus.
109
What is a gustatory receptor (cell)?
Responds to chemicals dissolved in saliva. It has microvilli, long gustatory hairs, that when stimulated, gives us “taste”
110
Define "hormone"
Chemical substances that are secreted by endocrine cells to regulate metabolic activity of other cells in the body
111
Explain the negative feedback mechanism that regulates blood levels of nearly all hormones.
The net effect of the response to the stimulus is to shut off the original stimulus or reduce its intensity.
112
Which gland is called the "master gland"?
The pituitary because it regulates other glands
113
Basic function of Growth hormone
grows skeletal muscles and long bones. It determines final body size.
114
Basic function of Oxytocin
released only during childbirth and in nursing women. Stimulates powerful contractions of the uterine muscle during labor, sexual relations, and breastfeeding
115
Basic function of Antidiuretic
chemical that inhibits urine production. ADH cuases kidneys to reabsorb water from the forming urine.
116
Basic function of Thyroid hormone
known as the body’s major metabolic hormone.
117
Basic function of Parathyroid hormone
aka “parathormone” is the most important regulator of calcium ion homeostasis of the blood
118
Basic function of Epinephrine
aka “adrenaline” Responsible for “fight/flight” instinct
119
Basic function of Insulin
sweeps glucose out of the blood. Its effect is said to be hypoglycemic. It lowers glucose levels in the blood
120
Basic function of Glucagon
does the opposite of insulin. Secretes glucose into the blood
121
What determines the color of blood?
How much oxygen it is carrying determines color. Scarlet is because of oxygen-rich. Dull red if oxygen-poor.
122
What is the normal pH of blood?
7.35- 7.45
123
Define hematocrit
"blood fraction"
124
What is the function of erythrocytes?
Red blood cells carry oxygen and supply it to the rest of the body.
125
what is the function of platelets?
helps with clotting blood so that an individual does not bleed out.
126
What is the function of Leukocytes?
white blood cells that attack virus/bacteria that invades our body.
127
What is the functino of hemoglobin in oxygen transport?
hemoglobins bond to oxygen molecule in the lungs and drops it off to the body.
128
Hemoglobin contains what mineral?
Iron
129
Where are blood cells produced?
Red blood cells are produced in the bone marrow, called the myeloid tissue.
130
Define Hemostasis
hem- blood stasis- stand still. Blood standing still; clot.
131
Define Hematopoiesis
Blood cell formation
132
Define Embolus
A thrombus that broke away and floats freely in the blood stream
133
Define Thrombus
A clot that develops and persists in an unbroken blood vessel
134
Define Anemia
a condition in which the body does not have enough healthy red blood cells
135
What blood type is the universal receiver?
AB+
136
What blood type is the universal donor?
O-
137
What does it mean to be RH- or RH+
RH+ (Most Americans) means that their red blood cells carry the Rh antigen.
RH- antibodies are not automatically formed and present in the blood of Rh-
138
List the layers of the heart from the outside in. Which layer contains the muscle?
Pericardium, epicardium, myocardium, endocardium. The myocardium is the layer containing the muscle.
139
Trace the flow of blood through the heart, naming all of the structures the blood would pass through.
Superior/Inferior vena cavas into the right atrium, through the tricuspid valve, through the pulmonary semilunar valve, to the left pulmonary artery, which leads to the lungs, then pulmonary veins (back to heart), to the left atrium, pass the bicuspid valve, thru the aortic semilunar valve, to the artery, to the body, and back to the heart thru superior/inferior vena cava.
140
Trace the conduction of the nerve impulses through the heart.
. Starts from the Sinoatrial node (SA) to the atrioventricular (AV) node, to the left and right AV bundle, and to the Purkinje fibers.
141
What are arteries, veins, and capillaries?
--Arteries- Large “freeways” that go away from the heart. Thick.
--Veins- travels to the heart
--Capillaries—tiny network that gives oxygen to the body tissues, etc. It is drained by
the venules, which empty into veins.
142
What do veins have that arteries do not have?
Veins have valves
143
What does and EKG measure?
Traces the flow of current through the heart.
144
What does blood pressure measure?
Pressure that is exerted against the inner walls of the blood vessels, and it is the force that keeps blood circulating continuously even between heartbeats.
145
Define hypertension:
High blood pressure 140/90 or higher
146
Define Hypotension
Low blood pressure below 100
147
Define systole:
contraction of ventricle
148
Define diastole:
relaxation of ventricle
149
define tachycardia:
rapid heart rate (over 100 beats/min)
150
Define bradycardia:
heart rate that is substantially slower than normal (less than 60 beats per min)
151
What is the primary function of the lymphatic system?
Returns leaked plasma to the blood vessels after cleansing it of bacteria and other foreign matter. Also provides sites for surveillance by immune system cells.
152
What is the body's first line of defense?
Skin and mucous membranes
153
What do phagocytes do?
They roam the body in blood and lymph. It engulfs a foreign particle.
154
List the cardinal signs of inflammation
Redness, heat, swelling, and pain
155
What is an antigen?
Any substance capable of mobilizing our immune system and provoking an immune response
156
What is an antibody?
Also referred to as immunoglobulins (or Igs) constitue the gamma globulin part of blood. They are formed in response to a huge number of different antigens.
157
Trace the path of air from the point of inhalation to the alveolus, identifying the structures it passes through.
Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and their smaller branches, lungs, and to the alveoli.
158
Where does gas exchange occur between the lungs and the blood?
It is exchanged in the alveoli.
159
What is surfactant?
A lipid produced by cuboidal cells. Surfactant coats the gas-exposed alveolar surfaces and is important in lung function.
160
Define: Pulmonary Ventilation
Air goes in and out of lungs. A.k.a “breathing.”
161
Define: External respiration
exchange of gas between pulmonary blood and alveoli
162
Define: internal respiration
Gas exchanges that happens on the level of blood and tissue cells. Happens inside the body.
163
What kind of cells transport oxygen?
Red blood cells; oxyhemoglobin
164
Define: Eupnea
Normal respiratory rate. Between 12-15 respirations/min.
165
Define hyperpnea
Pattern of breathing during exercise. Body breathes more vigorously and deeply, but the rate may not increase with exercise.
166
Define: apnea
cessation of breathing
167
Define: Hyperventilation
Rapid breathing that blows off carbon dioxide and decreases the amount of carbonic acid in the body
168
Define hypoventilation
extremely slow/shallow breathing
169
Define cyanosis
result of hypoxia; not enough oxygen in the body, so the skin turns bluish
170
Trace the path of food from ingestion to defecation, identifying all organs it passes through.
Mouth
Esophagus (cardioesophageal sphincter)
Stomach (pyloric sphincter)
Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, ileum, ileocecal valve)
Large intestine (cecum & appendix, ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid, rectum, anus)
171
Primary function of the Stomach
Temporary storage tank for food; site for food breakdown.
172
Primary function of the Small Intestine
Body’s major digestive organ. Food absorption.
173
Primary function of the Pancreas
Produces enzymes that break down all categories of digestible foods.
174
Primary function of the Liver:
Produces bile, which breaks down fat
175
Primary function of the Large Intestine
Absorb the water and eliminate residue as feces.
176
Carbohydrates are broken down into what?
Glucose, Fructose, and Galactose
177
Proteins are broken down into what?
Amino Acids
178
Lipids are broken down into what?
Fatty acids and glycerol
179
Define metabolism
Refers to all chemical reactions that are necessary to maintain life
180
Define catabolism
Substances are broken down to simpler substances
181
Define anabolism
large molecules or structures are built from smaller ones.
182
Define basal metabolic rate
the amount of heat produced by the body per unit of time when it is under basal conditions—that, at rest.
183
What is cellular respiration? What is its byproduct? What is the role of glucose?
Oxygen using events. Byproducts are CO2, and water. Glucose is the fuel used for making cellular energy (ATP).
184
List the functions of the kidneys
Filter gallons of fluid from the bloodstream. Expel waste and keep the needed portions. Also regulate the blood’s volume and chemical makeup so that proper balance between water and salt and acid and bases are maintained. Produces rennin, which help regulate blood pressure. Also stimulates red blood cell production in bone marrow. Kidney cells also convert vitamin D to its active form.
185
Trace the filtrate from the glomerulus to the point at which is it is excreted as urine.
```
Glomerulus
Golmerular capsule
Proximal tubule
Loop of Henle
Distal tuble
Collecting duct
Minor into Major Calix
Renal pelvis
Ureter
Bladder
Urethra
```
186
Define filtration:
nonselective, passive process in which fluid passes from the blood into the glomerular capsule part of the renal tubule.
187
Define secretion
essentially tubular reabsorption in reverse
188
Define reabsorption
Useful substances like water, glucose, amino acids, and ions are reclaimed and returned to the blood.
189
define micturition
AKA "voiding." the act of emptying the bladder
190
Describe the normal components of urine, and what is typically not excreted.
Not excreted: glucose, protein
Throws out nitrogenous wastes and unneeded substances.
191
What is the special type of epithelium found in the bladder?
It stretches for urine storage.
192
Define "alkalosis"
An alkaline substance has a pH of 7.45 or higher
193
Define acidosis
An acidic substance has a pH of 7.35 or lower
194
What is the prostate gland, where is it located, and what is its function?
Located below the urinary bladder. It secrete a milky fluid that plays a role in activating sperm
195
What are the testes, where they located, and what are their functions?
Located in scrotal sac. It produces sperm and testosterone
196
What are the ovaries, where are they located, and what are their functions?
Produce ova (egg) and estrogens and progesterone.
197
Where does fertilization take place?
Uterine tube
198
What is the average length of the female menstrual cycle?
28 days
199
Which hormones are responsible for the development of the male SECONDARY sex characteristics?
Androgen Testosterone
200
Which hormones are responsible for the development of the female secondary sex characteristics?
Estrogen and progesterone
