final exam prep chp 1-12

Question 1

define primary data

Answer 1

research info gathered directly from the original source

Question 2

define secondary data

Answer 2

research info that was originally gathered for a different purpose

Question 3

define penitentiary

Answer 3

19th century term for prisons based on a philosophy of penitence and punishment

Question 4

define rehabilitative philosophy

Answer 4

a belief that the right treatment can change a person’s attitudes, values and or behaviour

Question 5

define juvenile delinquent

Answer 5

a concept polarized in the victorian era, referring to children and youth who were considered problematic for a variety of reasons

Question 6

define reformatories

Answer 6

a 19th century term for juvenile prisons that were based on the belief in the ability of prisons to reform or change an individual

Question 7

define official crime

Answer 7

offender and offence data based on information collected for administrative purposes by justice agencies, such as police, courts, and correctional institutions

Question 8

define moral panic

Answer 8

refers to situations where people, groups, circumstances, or events are defined & perceived to be a threat to security and public order

Question 9

define marginalized

Answer 9

a condition in which people are excluded from mainstream society, can be cultural, political, economic, social or all 4

Question 10

define denied adulthood

Answer 10

refers to the notion that youth, because of their legalized dependency in western society, are prevented from attaining the things that many adults take for granted, such as the right to make decisions about their own lives & express views

Question 11

define demographics

Answer 11

the basic or vital statistics of a group, usually factors such as age, sex, ethnicity, marital status

Question 12

define penal populism

Answer 12

a situation where politicians propose or develop criminal justice policy that reflects public sentiment as presented through the media, rather than actual criminal activity or policy effectiveness

Question 13

define child savers

Answer 13

term used to refer to 19th century north american middle-class reformers who were instrumental in the creation of a separate system of justice for juveniles

Question 14

define parens patriae

Answer 14

a doctrine based on english common law that gives the state power to take on a parenting/guardian role for children

Question 15

define indictable

Answer 15

in the “canadian criminal code” refers to the offences that are of a serious nature; the maximum sentence is never less than 2 years

Question 16

define crime control model

Answer 16

a theoretical model representing a retributive set of beliefs and philosophies about crime and justice

Question 17

define modified justice model

Answer 17

a particular model of criminal or juvenile justice that is not in strict adherence to a pure justice philosophy

Question 18

define justice model

Answer 18

philosophy and orientation to criminal justice that posits the rule of law as the primary means of achieving a “just” justice system

Question 19

define reparation

Answer 19

in rj models, this involves offenders making amends in any of a variety of ways to their victims for the harm done by the offence

Question 20

define cycle of juvenile justice

Answer 20

refers to the tendency toward a never ending cycle of juvenile justice reform common in western society

Question 21

define social control agencies

Answer 21

usually government agencies mandated to preform various functions in the justice system, such as police, courts and correctional institutions

Question 22

define crime index

Answer 22

a stats canada categorization scheme for classifying police crime statistics as property, violent, and “other” index crimes

Question 23

define crime severity index

Answer 23

an index that assigns a weight to each offence based on the seriousness of the average sentence for that offence, and the proportion prison sentences

Question 24

define administrative charges

Answer 24

charges laid for behaviours that are not generally considered to be criminal ex: failure to appear in court

Question 25

define self report survey

Answer 25

a criminology questionnaire survey in which individuals are asked to report on their involvement in criminal or delinquent activities

Question 26

define victimization survey

Answer 26

a survey questionnaire that asks individuals whether they have been victimized over a particular time period and in what ways

Question 27

define clearance rates

Answer 27

refers to statistics that indicate the rate at which police process criminal incidents as charged offences

Question 28

define reliability

Answer 28

in behavioural science refers to the extent to which variable measurement and research findings can be or have been repeated

Question 29

define validity

Answer 29

refers to the extent to which research variables have been measured in a way that is consistent with the theoretical concept, or what was intended

Question 30

define telescoping

Answer 30

a problem faced by researchers conducting self report or victimization surveys. people tend to lump offences that may have occurred several years ago into something that occurred “last year”

Question 31

define self fulfilling prophecy

Answer 31

an assumption, that, in being made, actually causes itself to become true

Question 32

define racialized

Answer 32

a concept that allows an understanding of racism that goes beyond overt expressions and discriminatory actions of individuals

Question 33

define ethnographic method

Answer 33

a research method that directly involves richly detailed descriptions and classifications of a group of ppl or behaviours

Question 34

define longitudinal study

Answer 34

research method in which data on a group of people are collected over a number of time periods, rather than at only one point in their lives

Question 35

define birth cohort

Answer 35

a group of people born in the same time period

Question 36

define remedial solutions

Answer 36

programs designed to help overcome a weakness as opposed to correct a problem

Question 37

cycle of violence

Answer 37

the theory that when children witness or experience violence, they are more likely to experience or initiate violence as they get older

Question 38

define polyvictimization

Answer 38

refers to children who have experienced a number of victimizations and who exhibit traumatic symptomology

Question 39

define empirical

Answer 39

knowledge based on observation or experience rather than theory/philosophy

Question 40

define postmodernists

Answer 40

those who reject or challenge all that has been considered to be modern

Question 41

define positivist

Answer 41

18th century philosophical theoretical and methodological perspective posting that only that which is observable through the scientific method is knowable

Question 42

define classical school of criminology

Answer 42

school of thought that assumes people are rational beings who exercise free will in choosing criminal behaviour

Question 43

define eugenics

Answer 43

based belief in genetic differences between groups that result in superior or inferior

Question 44

define antisocial personality

Answer 44

people with traits of impulsivity, insensitivity and lack of remorse

Question 45

define developmental theory

Answer 45

inadequate development or failure to progress to higher states explains criminal behaviour

Question 46

define human ecology

Answer 46

examines relationship between people and their physical environment

Question 47

define strain theory

Answer 47

blocked opportunities cause behavioural problems ex: can’t achieve this, so rebel

Question 48

define consensus theory

Answer 48

theory that assumes people are law abiding

Question 49

define control theory

Answer 49

assumption that people will operate on basis of self interest unless constrained

Question 50

define critical perspective on crime

Answer 50

assumption that structures of power and oppression are the source of crime (race, gender, class)

Question 51

define social learning theory

Answer 51

attempts to explain crime through notions of modelling (rationalize crime) EX this person is rich they won’t miss it

Question 52

define interactional theory

Answer 52

social class, race and community affect social bond. delinquency has to be learned and reinforced.

Question 53

define oppression

Answer 53

prolonged cruel or unjust treatment or control.

laws, political parties etc that restrict rights

Question 54

define life course theory

Answer 54

children undergo role and status changes as they grow older

Question 55

define social capital theory

Answer 55

people possess varying degrees of valuable social goods (supportive family, good grades etc)

Question 56

define life course persistent

Answer 56

type of offender who begins with biting and hating in childhood and whose behaviour escalades into adult offences like child abuse, assault etc

Question 57

define adolescent limited

Answer 57

type of offender (majority) who don’t have childhood history of childhood antisocial behaviour, engages in this behaviour inconsistently in adolescence when profitable to do so

Question 58

define role theory

Answer 58

understand the process whereby individuals acquire and become committed to deviant roles ex: gangs

Question 59

define power control theory

Answer 59

explains gender differences in delinquency by structure of family relations

Question 60

define patriarchy

Answer 60

perpetuates and reinforces male dominance over women

Question 61

define microscopic perspective

Answer 61

focuses on behaviour in small social settings rather than in context of large social structures

Question 62

define androcentric

Answer 62

seemingly gender neutral ideas that are actually male centred

Question 63

define racial profiling

Answer 63

when racial differences exist in law enforcement

Question 64

define differential involvement

Answer 64

disproportionate minority police contract because of frequent criminal activity Ex; more likely to have police contact if aboriginal or black

Question 65

define differential treatment

Answer 65

disproportionate minority police contact discriminatory inequalities in justice system

Question 66

define alternative measures

Answer 66

variety of programs under YOA, divert youth from crime and the courts

Question 67

define extrajudicial measures

Answer 67

under YCJA processing accused youth offenders by other means than the justice system

Question 68

define extrajudicial sanctions

Answer 68

use of diversionary programs instead of justice system (rj)

Question 69

define net widening

Answer 69

tendency for policies seemingly designed to reduce number of ppl in justice system but result in more state control

Question 70

define interim release

Answer 70

provisions hat allow arrested individual t be released into the community under specific conditions (aka bail)

Question 71

define pretrial detention

Answer 71

holding someone in remand before court appearance

Question 72

define presumptive offence

Answer 72

under YCJA a serious violent offence more than 2 years

Question 73

define deterrence

Answer 73

theory that certain and speedy punishment will prevent criminal behaviour

Question 74

define conditional supervision order

Answer 74

requires person under supervision by particular conditions set by the court usually drug or alcohol related

Question 75

define administrative segregation

Answer 75

solitary confinement

Question 76

define multi systematic therapy

Answer 76

form of rehabilitation that focuses on the entire family not just on the individual

Question 77

explain indeterminate sentenced vs determinate sentences

Answer 77

indeterminate- sentences that are not absolute determinate- sentences with stated minimum or maximum

Question 78

define reverse discrimination

Answer 78

occurs when policies designed to end discrimination inadvertently create discrimination

Question 79

define neoliberal

Answer 79

a form of gov’t that prioritizes efficiency and cost effectiveness

Question 80

define community change model

Answer 80

looks at specific ways in which a community can address inequalities and injustice. less focus on offenders

Question 81

When was the juvenile delinquents act instilled

Answer 81

1908-1984

Question 82

when was the young offenders act instilled?

Answer 82

1984-2003

Question 83

when was the youth criminal justice act instilled?

Answer 83

2003-present

Question 84

why did we switch from the YOA to the YCJA

Answer 84

concern with overuse of courts, incarceration in less serious cases, unfairness in sentencing, ineffective reintegration

Question 85

what happened to youth processed under the juvenile delinquents act

Answer 85

• reform school that functioned like a jail
• separate children and adults
• no set mins/max for sentencing
• remained wards of the court until age 21

Question 86

what were the criticisms of the juvenile delinquents act?

Answer 86

sexual behaviour isn’t illegal for adults
no sentencing times
probation officer decides if child is reformed
tough on crime vs rehabilitative perspective butt heads

Question 87

what are the 7 aims of the young offenders act?

Answer 87

accountability
protection of society
special needs (different from adults)
alternative measures (jail as last resort)

Question 88

what was the primary purpose of the YCJA

Answer 88

protection of society first and then reintegration

Question 89

List the 4 ways children who are made to feel powerless by the oppressive acts of adults adapt

Answer 89

passive acceptance- obedient out of fear
exercise of illegitimate coercive power- tries to out power adult
manipulation of peers- control of peers
retaliation- striking back at ppl/institutions who repress them

Question 90

social bonds theory say that personal relationships keep us from committing crime, what are the 4 aspects of social bonds theory

Answer 90

attachment- social/cultural standard (relationship to parents)
commitment- social activities/institutions ex school
involvement- large amounts of time spent in socially approved activities reduces opportunity for deviance
belief- moral belief system, respect for social norms

Question 91

what are the 5 madza defence mechanisms

Answer 91

1) denial of responsibility
2) denial of injury
3) denial of victim
4) condemnation of condemners
5) appeal to higher loyalties

Question 92

explain the media’s role in youth crime

Answer 92

amount of coverage on youth crime in the media is disproportionate to how much youth crime there is.

Question 93

what was the colonial public issue around youth crime in canada

Answer 93

colonial administrators in the territories of canada worried about the freedom and independence that young people had compared to their counter parts in the old world

Question 94

Which social control agencies report on youth crime?

Answer 94

gov’t agencies including police, courts and corrections

Question 95

What are the 2 sources of youth crime data?

Answer 95

media

police (uniform crime reporting/court statistics/ self report surveys/victimization surveys)

Question 96

what are clearance rates?

Answer 96

outline whether criminal incidents are processed as charged offences

Question 97

What is the most common and least common youth crimes?

Answer 97

Property crime is the most common of all youth offending behaviour.
Violent offences are less common; however, they attract the most attention
Sexual assault cases are rare but are a concern.
Murder is rare among youth but also receives attention.

Question 98

what is the violent crime debate?

Answer 98

Is violent youth crime a problem? Most youth crime is non-violent; cases of violent crime are rare for youth and yet we still ask the question. – believed to be higher than it really is based on media sensationalization and how statistics are interpreted

Question 99

explain crime changes between the JDA, YOA and YCJA

Answer 99

We can examine crime rates as related to historic policies.
Higher crime rates under the YOA are likely the result of changes in legislation rather than increases in offending among youth.
The YCJA has resulted in increased diversion and lower charge rates.
Measures of severity add a new interpretive layer to statistics.

Question 100

explain political agendas

Answer 100

Political agendas – Police services may change their strategies and may use crime statistics to make the case for more officers being hired. They may also use crime statistics to address how they do their jobs, i.e., if crime is perceived as more severe, they may see the need to “crack down” on certain types of offences.

Question 101

what does the YCJA require from police officers in section 6 of the act?

Answer 101

requires police officers to consider if a warning is a sufficient response to a youth’s behaviour. Issue a warning (formal or informal) and let the youth suspect go
Arrest the youth and hold in custody
Question the youth suspect
Write up a report and release the youth suspect
Charge the youth suspect with an offence
Release the youth suspect with conditions
Referral of the youth to a diversionary program or youth justice committee
Hold the youth suspect in detention for 24 hours until a “bail” hearing can be held

Question 102

what are 2 extralegal factors affecting police discretion?

Answer 102

Race: Minority youth are more likely to be arrested and have a record.
Demeanour and Race: A suspect’s behaviour, attitude, and appearance determine the outcome. Police may perceive that all Blacks and Aboriginal youth are “difficult,” leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy.

Question 103

which 2 minority groups are disproportionally high when it comes to carding and charging rates?

Answer 103

aboriginal

blacks

Question 104

what is it hard to research racial bias

Answer 104

The challenge, according to some researchers, in determining the existence and nature of racial discrimination is the lack of data.
It is argued that the lack of statistics on race kept by the justice system does not permit full examination of personnel practices

Question 105

what is an example of a law that is aimed at controlling disadvantaged youth, but hurts youth more?

Answer 105

The bias is further perpetuated by legislation that is aimed at controlling the actions of disadvantaged youth. For example, loitering and panhandling laws are aimed at making streets feel “safer,” and the fallout is that poor youth are criminalized.

Question 106

what are the gender differences in youth charging?

Answer 106

Gender differences in charging depend on age and the nature of the offence.
Older boys are more likely to be charged and go to court than older girls, but younger girls are more likely to be charged and go to court than younger boys.

Question 107

what are the functions of youth justice committees

Answer 107

Give advice on extrajudicial measures
Facilitate reconciliation between offender and victims
Coordinate youth services and justice system
Advise on compliance
Give public information

Question 108

describe 1 diversionary measure issue

Answer 108

Police accountability: concern that police discretion has enabled increased use of detention and the imposition of release conditions that are further criminalizing youth
Police discretionary decision-making appears to be contrary to the YCJA objective to reduce the use of custody

Question 109

Is the amendment to Bill C-10 allowing the use of previous EJMs as a deciding factor for later pre-trial detention contrary to the notion of diversion?

Answer 109

A consequence of participation in EJM is the requirement that the youth take responsibility for his/her actions. The alternative, if the youth wishes to indicate non-involvement in the event, is going to court and pleading not guilty and being processed accordingly.

The changes to pre-trial detention imposed by Bill C-10 requiring record taking for EJMs so that they may be used to justify detention mean that the nature of diversion is tainted. Diversion in its origin suggested that a youth could avoid a label and further consequences if he or she complied with the diversionary measures required. These changes mean that despite compliance, previous interventions can be used against a youth in the future.

Question 110

Fair does not mean same – Notions that all youth offenders should be treated the same in order to avoid discrimination leads to lack of fairness in the experiences of minority groups. Give an example:

Answer 110

Problem is that Aboriginal youth are subject to Eurocentric justice practices
Life experiences of minorities differ from rest of society
Social injustice prevails in the youth justice system when laws and policies do not recognize cultural differences between Natives and the principles of the Canadian justice system.

Question 111

How is Aboriginal culture different from non-Aboriginal culture? Four core beliefs:

Answer 111

• Not burdening others with one’s problems
• Thinking about the present and future rather than to the past
• A focus on the collective rather than the individual
• An emphasis on healing and reconciliation

Question 112

what is canada’s feedback from the UNCRC

Answer 112

Canada has made limited progress in meeting the requirements of the UN to reduce inequities affecting children belonging to minorities and other groups of children in vulnerable situations.
Specifically, Canada must thoroughly examine the overrepresentation of Aboriginal and African-Canadian children in the youth criminal justice system.

Question 113

where are we now in terms of youth crime? (generalized)

Answer 113

Crime rates are down.
Moral panics about youth crime and violence persist.
The media play a role in perpetuating the myths of youth crime.
The justice system is responsive to grassroots moral panics as well as to national and international standards.Programming initiatives are ever-changing and often based on models outside of Canada.
Responses to youth crime and delinquency are sometimes based on outside disciplines such as medical and community planning models.
The new science of crime prevention through risk assessment is taking hold.
The cost-effectiveness of programs is now being considered more closely.

Question 114

what are some new ideas in youth justice?

Answer 114

Restorative justice is becoming an important part of our juvenile justice system.
Ontario program developed in 1974 – Victim Offender Reconciliation Program
Peacemaking circles
Sentencing circles/conferences
Transformative justice
Community change model

Question 115

define peacemaking circles

Answer 115

Peacemaking circles – takes a macro perspective and operates under the presumption that the entire community is responsible for crime and rehabilitation/reintegration

Question 116

What are some ongoing issues in the YCJA that fall under bill C-10

Answer 116

Under Bill C-10 there has been a significant shift toward a youth justice system that more closely resembles our adult system of justice. Recall that this conflicts with the UN declaration.

Question 117

describe what can work and what doesn’t work in juvenile justice?

Answer 117

can work-

developmental crime prevention
school safe initiatives 
after school activities
situational crime prevention 
therapeutic interventions including family therapy
mentoring
targeted policing of high risk youth and areas where crime is high
restorative justice

doesn’t work-

curfews 
scared straight programs
probation
incarceration
adult sentences
boot camps
0 tolerance policies
long term confinement 
deterrence policies

Question 118

what are some issues in youth crime?

Answer 118

Age and adult accountability: Contrary to UN specifications, Canada continues to have youth held in adult institutions in some cases.
Pretrial detention: continuing to increase with the YCJA
Release conditions: criminalize more youth because release conditions are too restrictive for teens to live up to
Parental rights/supports: The YCJA does not adequately support parents who are trying to be effective parents.
Cross-over kids: The justice system has failed to address the needs of those who start in the welfare system (under age 12) and become involved in the youth justice system.

Question 119

list the aboriginal youth issues

Answer 119

Racism
Effects of colonialism
Cultural differences in meaningful justice
Suicide, addictions, and other social problems
Blurring/blending of child-welfare and youth justice system involvement (cross-over kids)

Question 120

what is the cycle of juvenile justice?

Answer 120

moving from punishment to leniency back to punishment

Question 121

list 3 solutions that are proactive rather than reactive in juvenile justice

Answer 121

Solution #1: restorative justice programs
Solution #2: anti-bullying programs
Solution #3: addressing the real sources of crime: victimized youth who will become youth criminals