Final Exam: Philosophy of Knowledge

Question 1

What is scepticism?

Answer 1

• Philosophical position asserting that we have no knowledge.

Question 2

What are necessary and sufficient conditions?

Answer 2

• Necessary conditions = basis for something
  
  • A necessary for B
  • If B then A, because B cannot be without A
  • If A, B or not B
• Sufficient conditions = always there if something is there
  
  • A necessary for B
  • B sufficient for A, if B then A

Question 3

What is the JTB theory of knowledge?

Answer 3

• Knowledge = Justified True Belief
• Three conditions:
  
  1. Justification (evidential)
  2. Truth
  3. Belief

Question 4

Are there counterexamples to JTB Theory?

Answer 4

• Depends on definition of justification:
• If justification = guarantee of truth ⇒ no counter-examples
• If justification = normally true
  
  • Stopped clock in town-center example
  • Jones’ pocket example
  • Bird-watcher example
  • Gettier’s examples

Question 5

What is Descartes method of doubt?

Answer 5

• Classes of statements get doubted in order to find undoubtable statements
• Found only one: “Cogito ergo sum”, “I think, therefore I am”

Question 6

What is Descartes Foundationalism?

Answer 6

• Descartes tried find some undoubtable foundational truths and then build his knowledge from there, to refute scepticism.

Question 7

Does Descartes Foundationalism work?

Answer 7

• It only works with the additional premise that God exists and is not a believer.
• However, Descartes tries to prove his claims with one another. ⇒ Cartesian circle
• Problem: Internal certifiability

Question 8

What is internal certifiability?

Answer 8

• Requirements
  
  1. There is an argument to prove the statement
  2. The premises of the argument can be known a priori
• Linking premise between sense information and knowledge

Question 9

What is the Reliability Theory of Knowledge?

Answer 9

• Knowledge =
  
  1. Belief
  2. Truth
  3. Circumstantial impossibility to be wrong
     
     • = Circumstances that ensure proposition is true, if I believe that it is true
     • Thermometer analogy

Question 10

What are the three kinds of impossibility?

Answer 10

1. Logical impossibility
   
   • Violates logic
2. Nomological impossibility
   
   • Violates laws of nature
3. Circumstancial impossibility
   
   • Violates current circumstantial restrictions

Question 11

What is the KK-principle? What does Reliabilism say about it?

Answer 11

• You only know something, if you know that you know it.
• The Reliabilty theory of knowledge refutes it.
  
  • Analogy: thermometer does not know the temperature but still is reliable.

Question 12

What is the relativity of knowledge?

Answer 12

• Knowledge is relative to the circumstances under Reliabilism.
• Relativity = truth depends on context

Question 13

What is the difference betweenknowledge and justified belief?

Answer 13

• Knowledge implies truth, justified belief does not.
• Knowledge implies impossibility of error, justified belief does not.
• Justified belief comes in degrees, some beliefs are more justified than others.

Question 14

What is justified belief criticism?

Answer 14

• Attacks rationality of induction

Question 15

What are the two forms of induction?

Answer 15

• Generalization
• Prediction

Question 16

What is Hume’s criticism of induction?

Answer 16

• Hume: “All inductive reasoning is based on PUN”
• PUN = Principle of uniformity of nature. Nature in the future will resemble nature in the past.
• We can only prove PUN with induction
  
  • Begging the question/circularity
  • Thus, it is not rational to use induction.
  • It is just habit.

Question 17

What is Sober’s new version of Hume’s criticism?

Answer 17

• How can prove that induction is reliable?
  
  • We cannot prove it deductively
  • We can only prove it through induction, but thats circular

Question 18

What is Strawson’s answer to Hume’s criticism of induction?

Answer 18

• Induction is a rational way to amplify knowledge is an analytic truth
• Problem: does this prove its reliability? Nope.

Question 19

What is Black’s response to Hume’s criticism of induction?

Answer 19

• Circularity only means using premises from the conclusion, which can only be believed, if you already believe the conclusion to be true.
• “The inductive rule of inference” however, is an underlying principle and thus you can prove induction by induction, without being circular.
• Problem: Counterargument “counter-induction” could be proven by this logic and it is absurd.

Question 20

Sober’s answer to the problem of induction?

Answer 20

• There are three levels of indubitable beliefs, Descartes tried to prove levels through lower levels.
• But you need God or some other premise to bridge the levels.
• That is the case, because evidence is only evidence relative to some background beliefs.
• Relativity of evidence
• Inter-level justification is impossible to achieve.
• Different approach: Neurath’s Boat - it does not matter, we are in a situation and now we have to work with it. We do we have to throw all of our knowledge over board, and build it up from the ground? We better just fix it as we go, if needed.